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NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES:CHINA AND THE MULTILATERAL TRADING SYSTEM Robert Z. Lawrence
Working Paper 12759
http://www.nber.org/papers/w12759
指导英国论文NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH
1050 Massachusetts Avenue
Cambridge, MA 02138
December 2006
Prepared for a conference on "China and Emerging Asia: Reorganizing the Global Economy?" Organized
by The Korea Institute for Economic Policy (KIEP) and Center for International Commerce and Finance
(CICF) at Graduate School of International Studies, Seoul National University to be held in Seoul,
Korea, May 11 & 12 2006. The views expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.
© 2006 by Robert Z. Lawrence. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs,
may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to
the source.
China and the Multilateral Trading System
Robert Z. Lawrence
NBER Working Paper No. 12759
December 2006
JEL No. F13
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews China's multilateral and preferential trade policies. It reviews the demanding terms
of China's WTO accession, its current tariff and trade regime and its participation in the Doha Round
negotiations and the institution's regular activities. The analysis concludes that China's trade policies
are broadly supportive of a rules based multilateral trading order and its behavior at the WTO is that
of a status quo power rather than one seeking major systemic changes. The discussion then turns to
China's regional trade initiatives. China has been extremely active in negotiating these and their implications
remain uncertain. Concerns about an East Asian fortress, though, appear misplaced. Directly, and through
their impact in inducing others to respond, these FTAs could provide a powerful impetus to the process
of competitive global liberalization. Countries that do implement agreements with China will find
it relatively easy to open their markets to other developing countries. There is also a risk however
that the proliferation of FTAs will lead to web of overlapping agreements that could make the trading
system unnecessarily complex
Robert Z. Lawrence
JFK School of Government
79 JFK Street
Cambridge, MA 02138
and NBER
robert_lawrence@harvard.edu
3
China and the Multilateral Trading System
For more than two decades, China’s rapid growth has been driven by its global#p#分页标题#e#
economic engagement. Since its accession to the WTO in 2001, foreign trade and foreign
direct investment have made even more important contributions to Chinese growth.
Between 2001 and 2005, for example, the dollar value of Chinese exports and imports
increased at annual rates of 29.3 and 25.3 percent respectively and in 2005, 58 percent of
Chinese exports originated from foreign owned firm. As a result of this performance,
China’s share in world imports increased from 3.3 in 2001 to 5.9 percent in 2004 and its
share in world exports from 3.9 percent in 2001 to 6.5 percent in 2004. This makes China
a major participant in world trade and having now surpassed Japan, the dominant trading
power in East Asia 1 China looms particularly large as an exporter of labor- intensive
manufactured goods and components and as a major importer of capital goods, primary
commodities and semi-finished parts. 2 It is also the developing world’s largest recipient
of direct foreign investment.
Given its size, the pace of its expansion, and its outward orientation, China is
likely to have a growing impact on the global trading system and its policies are likely to
http://www.ukassignment.org/ have an important influence on the system’s evolution. These policies have been as
dynamic as its trade and investment performance. In 2001 after fourteen years of
negotiations, China became a full member of the WTO, assuming obligations that are at
1 In 2003 and 2004 china accounted for 10.6 and 8.9 of the growth in world imports and 10.5 and 9.7 of
world exports.
2 Having assumed the ranks of the world’s third largest trader, Chinese trade policies will now be subject to
the WTO Trade review mechanism every two years – a treatment reserved for countries with large trade
volumes.
4
the level of many developed economies. Since that time it has participated actively in the
institution’s activities and negotiations. In part to meet the conditions of its accession,
China has also dramatically liberalized its domestic economy and introduced a large
number of internal policies that consolidate its transition to a market economy. In
addition, China has adopted a multi-track trade policy strategy, complementing its WTO
and domestic liberalization policies with regional trading initiatives. By 2005, China had
completed four FTA agreements (Thailand in 2003, Hong Kong and Macao in 2004 and
Chile in 2005) and as estimated by Wong and Hufbauer have proposed and/or launched
negotiations for least another fifteen.3
What do these policies portend? When China proposed joining the WTO several#p#分页标题#e#
concerns were raised. One was that the system as a whole could be weakened because
China was not a fully market driven economy and was therefore unlikely or unable to
adhere to the WTO rules. China then acceded to the WTO under very demanding terms
and there were fears that either deliberately or inadvertently it would not implement these
commitments.4 This would put other members in the difficult position of either (a) trying
to compel compliance with trade retaliation and other sanctions that could increase
frictions or (b) ignoring Chinese infractions thereby undermining the WTO system in
establishing an international rule of law to which all members adhered.
A second concern was that China would not participate constructively in the
WTO. It would throw its weight around, try quickly to obtain disproportionate influence
3 See Gary Clyde Hufbauer and Yee Wong, “Prospects for Regional Free Trade in Asia” Washington DC:
Institute for International Economics, Working Paper Number WP-o5-12. October 2005. Their list of
proposed agreements includes APEC, East Asia, South-East Asia, Brazil, GCC, India, Mexico, New
Zealand, Peru, Singapore, South Africa, Mercosur, Australia, Chile, Iceland, Japan, Korea and Pakistan.
4 Glenda Mallon and John Whalley for example express concern about that Chinese policy instruments
would generate many new trade disputes. See “China’s Post Accession WTO Stance” NBER Working
Paper No. 10649 August 2004.
5
and use its influence to fundamentally change the WTO system. China was also seen as a
potentially powerful addition to the ranks of developing countries, and many in the
developed world worried that it would seek to limit the obligations required of
developing countries.
More recently a third set of questions is being raised with respect to China’s trade
policies in the East Asian region. Would Chinese regional initiatives undermine the
multilateral trading order? Is China seeking to establish an East Asian trading bloc under
its leadership that discriminates against outsiders? Will it use its market to create a hub
and spoke system in East Asia in which China gains serves as the hub and the other
countries are the spokes? Finally there is the fear that not only China but other countries
in the region are creating a system of overlapping trade regimes – or a noodle bowl – that
could impose unnecessary trading costs, induce harmful trade diversion, and actually
fragment rather than integrate the regional economy.
This paper, considers these questions. Chinese policies are analyzed with a view
to determining the direction they are taking and the effects they are likely to have on the#p#分页标题#e#
multilateral system. The discussion first considers China’s participation in the WTO. It
reviews the terms of accession, China’s current tariff and trade regime and its
participation in the Doha Round negotiations and the institution’s regular activities. The
analysis concludes that China’s trade policies are broadly supportive of a rules based
multilateral trading order. China has accepted and implemented obligations that go far
further than most developing countries. It has been interested in using the system to
advance its interests rather than in changing it.5 Its behavior at the WTO is thus more
5 See Margaret M. Pearson, China’s Multiple Personalities in Geneva: Constructing a Template for Future
research on Chinese Behavior in WTO” University of Maryland (mimeo) 2003.
6
akin to that of a status quo power than one seeking major systemic changes. The
discussion then turns to China’s FTA initiatives. These are still a work in progress, and
their implications are uncertain. Concerns about an East Asian fortress appear misplaced.
Directly, and through their impact in inducing others to respond, these FTAs could
provide a powerful impetus to the process of competitive global liberalization. Countries
that do implement agreements with China will find it relatively easy to open their markets
to other developing countries. There is also a risk that the proliferation of FTAs will lead
to web of overlapping agreements that could make the trading system unnecessarily
complex.
China’s policies both at home and abroad are still evolving and thus major shifts
in the direction and nature of the policies cannot be ruled out. Accordingly, the final
section considers four factors that could play an important role in influencing outcomes
in the future. These are the precise terms of the agreements that are concluded, China’s
domestic implementation of its commitments, the impact of currency appreciation on
China’s competitiveness and protectionist responses to China by other countries.
Section I: China in the WTO
The WTO operates by consensus. Any country seeking to join must
essentially satisfy all existing members before they will permit it to accede. To be sure,
formally, there is a requirement for decisions on accession to be approved by a vote of
two thirds of the Members (Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, Art
XII.1) and there are also provisions allowing existing and acceding members a one time
opportunity to opt out from extending MFN provisions when countries accede
(Agreement Establishing the WTO Art XIII) but in practice unanimity is sought and most
#p#分页标题#e# 7
countries receive full MFN treatment. The need to obtain such approval means that new
members are often asked to assume obligation that are far more extensive than existing
members at an equivalent stage of economic development.
Accession Commitments. The terms of China’s accession to the WTO exemplify
these propositions. Although China is a developing country and thus in principle entitled
by the WTO’s “enabling clause” to special and differential treatment, the United States
and other WTO members were successful in insisting that China enter the WTO on
“commercial terms”. This meant that China assumed obligations that in many cases went
far beyond those expected of existing members at its stage of development. These
commitments involved not simply reducing border barriers but undertaking detailed
changes in internal policies.
Upon accession China was required to make major tariff reductions and by 2007
to reduce average import-weighted average tariffs to 6.8 percent. 6This is a major
additional decline in tariffs which had averaged 40.6 percent as recently as1992 and is
almost half the average level in place upon accession. Almost all China’s non-tariff trade
barriers have to be removed. Nearly all imports and export quotas and licenses had to be
removed by 2005 and those that did remain to be administered in a transparent manner.
By 2005, all firms were to be allowed to import and export goods. China also agreed to
implement the WTO TRIMs agreement without exceptions and thus could no longer
make the permission to invest or import contingent on performance requirements such as
earning foreign exchange or using domestic content. Restrictions on foreign participation
in the distribution sector were to be phased out within three years. China also agreed to
6 Razeen Sally, “China’s Trade Policies and its Integration into the World Economy” Paper prepared for
IGD/SAIIA SACU-China FTA Workshop, Johannesburg, 28-29th September 2004.
8
the TRIPs and it adopted the WTO SPS and TBT Agreements immediately upon its
accession.
There were also a host of commitments with respect to policy transparency
including obligations to translate into English and publish new laws and regulations and
to establish inquiry points for foreign firms and governments. Time is be allowed for
comment before laws are promulgated and new tribunals established to review
administrative acts relating to WTO implementation with the right of appeal to higher
judicial bodies.
Although the WTO is in principle based on non-discrimination China was also
compelled to agree, on a transitory basis, to permit members to subject it to#p#分页标题#e#
discriminatory treatment. First, it agreed to both a special selective safeguard that could
be used against its exports for twelve years after its accession. It also agreed to an
additional safeguard provision for textiles and apparel that would be in force until the end
of 2008 and could be (and has been) used temporarily to deny it the full benefits of the
expiration of the MFA in 2005; 7Second, China agreed to accept non-market economy
status for the purposes of anti-dumping rules until the end of 2015. This would allow
countries to use specially constructed prices in evaluated claims of dumping brought
against Chinese exporters; and third, China allowed the WTO setting up a transitional
Review Mechanism that would review its implementation record annually for the first ten
years of its membership.
These demanding terms were useful for Chinese reformers. Before its accession
to the WTO, China’s initial domestic reforms involved taking tentative steps towards
7 Par 242 of the report of the Working Party on the Accession of China”
9
introducing a market system to its economy. The enterprises that played a leading role in
these reforms, however, were generally owned by foreign investors and local Chinese
governments rather than private Chinese entrepreneurs. WTO membership strengthened
the hand of reformers seeking to hasten China’s movement towards a more developed
market economy. The benefits from WTO accession became an added reason for
undertaking the domestic reforms needed to join the organization. WTO entry has
allowed China’s leadership to make a more credible commitment towards moving China
towards a system that more fully recognizes private enterprise.
The requirements of WTO entry forced Chinese policymakers to confront
politically difficult issues. These included reforming domestic banking institutions,
subjecting state-owned enterprises to harder budget constraints, and allowing private
firms to freely engage in international trade. WTO entry also mobilized domestic firms
to become more competitive through restructuring, acquiring new technologies, and
forming new alliances and mergers with both domestic and foreign firms.
The WTO accession process also served to promote better Chinese governance.
The WTO requires policy transparency and the enforcement of domestic trade policies on
the basis of rules rather than bureaucratic discretion. WTO membership also necessitates
non-discrimination (i.e. national treatment) for imported goods and services. China
remains a country with considerable domestic barriers and strong provincial
governments. If provinces are forced to provide national treatment for imported goods#p#分页标题#e#
and services, they will find it harder to discriminate against goods from other provinces.
Many of these reforms are changes that China might have chosen to implement anyway,
but entry into the WTO served to advance their implementation.
10
In 2004, as reported in Table 1 below, these requirements were apparent in
China’s tariff regime and WTO commitments. China had bound one hundred percent of
its tariffs—a discipline which most other Asian and many developing countries and
developed countries have not accepted. Unlike almost all developing countries that have
average bound rates far in excess of their applied rates, there is almost no water in
China’s tariffs. Its average applied rates in 2004 of 10.4 were converging closely to its
final bound rate average of 10 percent. China’s average applied rates on non-agricultural
products of 9.5 percent in 2004 were similar to those of Malaysia 9.1 and converging to
the levels of Korea and other East Asian economies of around 6 percent. They were
already far below the average non-agricultural rates applied by other major developing
countries such as Brazil 12.7, Egypt 19.5, India 27.9 and Mexico 17.1. China’s average
applied tariffs on agricultural products of 16.2 percent are similar to those of the
Philippines and Chinese Taipei and far below those of Korea, Thailand, Egypt, India and
Mexico.
China’s services liberalization is also very impressive. Commitments have been
made for ninety three sectors, a number way above the typical developing country or
ASEAN member and quite in line with the commitments of Korea (98 sectors) and South
Africa (91 sectors.) Among noteworthy commitments: the banking sector is to be
completely open to foreign competition by the end of 2006. In telecommunications up to
49 percent ownership is to be allowed by 2006. The Insurance sector was also extensively
liberalized. Foreign securities houses were allowed minority equity and several
professional services, most notably legal were liberalized as well.
11
WTO Participation. Appraisals of China’s performance at the WTO are generally
positive.8 Its delegation is regarded as being of high quality. It has participated actively
in regular WTO activities. Remarkably, it has only been involved in one dispute as a
complainant (US steel safeguards) and two as a defendant. There was a case initiated by
the United States in March 2004 relating to preferential value added tax for domestically
designed integrated circuits9 and currently there is a case regarding auto parts in which
both the US and the EU allege China has violated its commitments. In several other
#p#分页标题#e# cases where China has been challenged they have quickly come into compliance.10 China
has also participated in 47 cases as a third party something which both the EU and US
8 According to Pearson, “on a personal level, China’s interlocutors at the WTO, as at APEC, are uniformly
complimentary about the quality of China’s delegation”.
9 The case resulted in a mutually agreed solution in October 2005 China agreed to amend or revoke the
measures at issue.
10 Author’s private communication with a US trade lawyer based in China.
12
routinely do to ensure that they have the right to defend their interests should the need
arise. This participation is a clear demonstration that China views its interests as systemic
and that these go beyond only those disputes in which it is directly involved.
China has also been active in the Doha Round negotiations. Non-Agricultural
Market Access (NAMA) is the area of greatest importance as an offensive objective.
China would like to as much liberalization as possible by other countries while at the
same time insisting on special treatment for countries that have recently acceded. China
has engaged actively in NAMA discussions of formulas that should be employed for
tariff reduction. In agriculture its positions are more mixed. It is very interested in
reducing subsidies and protection in developed countries. It chose to participate in the
G20 formed at Cancun in order to press these claims although it has not been particularly
active in joining other groups. It would also like to see lower barriers to its agricultural
exports to developing countries. On the other hand, China also seeks some flexibility in
commitments assumed by developing countries to assist poor farmers and promote rural
development. In the services area, China also has a particular interest in mode-four
liberalization the movement of natural persons. This would increase opportunities for
Chinese workers to work abroad . China is particularly concerned about rules. It seeks
more disciplines on anti-dumping practices such as zeroing for example. China has also
voiced its support for trade facilitation although it is not particularly interested in such
assistance for itself. It has also not been a vociferous advocate of S&D treatment because
13
it clearly has an important interest in seeing developing countries with large markets such
as India and Brazil making meaningful liberalization commitments.11
Overall, therefore, in the Round, China has not tried to take as a strong a
leadership role as Brazil, but it has by no means been passive. This is also true of its
activity at the WTO more generally. Hakan Nordstrom has undertaken a very interesting#p#分页标题#e#
analysis of country participation in WTO activities. He has collected data on all written
submissions members have undertaken both individually and with others in 2003. These
reflect activities undertaken both in the ruling bodies of the WTO as well as in the Doha
Round negotiations. China emerges in these data as the most active developing country
and the third most active WTO member. Its total of 65 written submissions was
considerably below those for the EU (120 submissions) and the USA (116), but greater
India the second most active developing country participant. The detailed data reported in
appendix Table1 indicate that China was especially active in the Rules Committee with
18 submissions, ten of which related to subsidies and countervailing duties.
Table 2. Top 10 WTO participants (written submissions, 2003)
Rank Member Category Overall Individual Joint
1 EC D 120 105 15
2 USA D 116 109 7
3 China DC 65 48 17
4 Japan D 61 44 17
5 Australia D 50 44 6
6 India DC 48 16 32
7 Switzerland D 46 23 23
8 Chile DC 45 16 29
9 Thailand DC 44 16 28
10 Canada D 43 36 7
11 Pearson makes the interest point that China has not been a participant in coalitions of developing
countries that have resisted liberalization such as the “Like-minded Group” that focused on the difficulties
of developing country implementation (page 23)
14
Source: Nordström 12
In most respects, therefore, China appears as a constructive member working to
pursue its interests which for the most part correspond to the organization’s goals of
greater multilateral liberalization. There are however two matters in which China has
been more aggressive and even recalcitrant. Both reflect powerful domestic political
concerns. The first relates to Taiwan. Members of the WTO are officially customs
territories rather than sovereign nations. As such China could tolerate the accession of
Taiwan which also occurred at Doha. At the same time, however, the government of
China has fiercely fought any gesture by WTO members that could imply that Taiwan
enjoyed sovereign status. This has led to testy interactions when Taiwan attempted to
exercise its rights to formal consultations. In 2003, there was also considerable friction in
response to Chinese efforts to downgrade Taiwan status from “permanent mission” which
could imply an independent country to office of permanent representative”13
China has also been visibly unenthusiastic about the annual Transitional Review
Mechanism it is forced to undergo. China is required by the terms of accession agreement
each year to provide an extensive amount of data regarding its policies and performance#p#分页标题#e#
and then to submit to questioning by other members. These reviews are a nagging
reminder about the terms of its accession that some in China viewed as having been a sell
out. They also appear to question China’s integrity and its willingness to honor its legally
binding commitments. China grudgingly sticks to the letter of law in meeting this
12Håkan Nordström “ Participation of developing countries in the WTO - new evidence based on the 2003
official records” National Board of Trade, Sweden (mimeo) 2005.
13 Pearson op. cit. page 16.
15
commitment, giving only oral answers to questions that are often less than forthcoming.
It is clearly an unwilling participant and does not take kindly to the treatement.
All told therefore, China is seeking normalcy not special treatment and this is
something it will gain once the transitory arrangements associated with its accession
expire. Within a decade, special safeguards, non-market status, and transitional review
mechanisms will expire and China will gladly assume its role as a more normal but very
important WTO member.
What accounts for the way in which China has participated in the WTO? Why has
it chosen to be constructive and yet not highly assertive? China is constructive because
the WTO is a very attractive institution for China that clearly serves its interests. To be
sure, China was important enough to receive MFN treatment from almost all countries
even prior to joining, and some suggested that by joining under such demanding terms, it
was opening itself up to challenges that could have actually reduced its market access.
14But, for the most part such challenges have been conspicuous by their absence, and
China now enjoys unconditional MFN treatment and the ability to enforce its rights
through the dispute settlement system.
China’s political relations with other countries are often problematic because of
the undemocratic nature of its system of government and its poor record on human rights.
This gives China a great interest in a strong, rules-based WTO because it allows its trade
and investment issues to be placed a less political, more technical track. In addition,
since China does not have FTAs or benefit from preferences in its major developed
country markets -- the US, EU and Japan (so far) -- the MFN terms on which access to
these markets is granted is especially important for China.
14 See Mallon and Whalley op. cit.
16
Bargaining at the WTO is done on the basis of reciprocal concessions. This means
that those with the largest markets exercise the greatest power. China’s large and growing
market and its willingness and ability to liberalize position it naturally to exercise#p#分页标题#e#
influence. But so far, it has been prudent it the way it has exercised this power. This is
because China also seeks to be a leader of the developing countries and its economic
interest in liberalization and competitiveness in exporting come into conflict with the
desire of many developing countries to seek special and differential treatment and benefit
from preferential access. This leads it to be less outspoken about its interests than it might
otherwise be and allows China to leave the demands for developing country liberalization
to the developed countries.
Historically, times during which new powers are arising on the global stage have
been filled with tension. And the real challenge for the rest of the world lies in ensuring
that an emergent China has incentives to engage the rest of the world in a cooperative and
peaceful fashion. China’s performance at the WTO suggests that at least so far, by
allowing China to join, the rest of the world has helped meet this challenge.
Section III: Regional Arrangements.
Like almost every other WTO member, China has not confined its trade
policy to the WTO. 15 Instead, it has both embraced and stimulated the current global
trend towards Free Trade Agreements.16 China has concluded several agreements and
is in the process of negotiating many more. In 2001, it began talks with ASEAN that
15 Some countries, embarrassed by the need to explain why they are departing from a pure multilateral
strategy use the excuse of slow movement in the Doha Round as the reason why they are suddenly
launching into a large number of FTAs but this is not generally very persuasive since some of the countries
making this excuse are among the least forthcoming. This is not, however, an argument made by the
Chinese government.
16 For an excellent overview see Agata Antkiewicz and John Whalley “China’s New Regional Trade
Arrangements” NBER Working Paper 10992 December 2004.
17
resulted in an agreement to eliminate tariffs and continue with a view to obtaining
agreements with respect to investment and services. It 2003 an agreement in
agriculture was concluded with Thailand. In 2004, Hong Kong & Macau signed
agreements with the Mainland. In 2005, an agreement with Chile was concluded and
there are currently ongoing FTA negotiations with Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan,
the Southern Africa Customs Union and the Gulf Cooperation Council. Other
discussions that are ongoing include Brazil, Iceland, India, Japan and South Korea. In
what follows, I first describe some of these agreements and then appraise their
significance.
Asean. In 2002 a framework agreement on Comprehensive Economic#p#分页标题#e#
Cooperation was signed with ASEAN to serve as guide for achieving an FTA that
covers goods services and investment. The goal is to have an FTA in place by 2010
among the more advanced of these countries. The newer ASEAN members (Vietnam,
Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia) will have until 2015 to comply. An early harvest
program reduced or eliminated tariffs in about 10 percent of lines by 2006. Most
other tariffs are to be eliminated on between 2005 and 2010, by which time 90
percent of tariff lines should be covered. The remaining 10 percent are deemed
sensitive and will be removed at a slower pace. 17There are also ongoing negotiations
with respect to services and investment and expectations that ASEAN could obtain
benefits from acceleration in China’s WTO service liberalization commitments.1819
17 The sensitive groups of products would have their tariffs slashed starting in 2012 to reach a level between
zero and 5 percent by 2020, while highly sensitive goods may maintain their import duties but only to a
maximum 50 percent in 2020.
18 Singapore government website.
19 Investment Negotiations It has been agreed that the ASEAN Investment Agreement (AIA) would be used
as a template for investment negotiations.
18
China has heralded this agreement. Its press observes
“The China-ASEAN FTA will form a huge market, with 1.85 billion consumers and a
combined gross domestic product of almost US$2.5 trillion. The value of imports and
exports of this zone will hopefully exceed that of the NAFTA (North America Free Trade
Agreement) by 2010 and its GDP will likely be higher than that in the European Union
market. These three, China-ASEAN free trade zone, NAFTA and the EU, will become
the three pillars of the world economy.”20
China has also had talks on bilateral FTAs with some of the ASEAN countries. In
particular it concluded the agreement with Thailand that focused on fruits and vegetables
in 2003. It also started talks with Singapore but these were suspended over a fallout on
Taiwan.
Hong Kong and Macao. The Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement (CEPA)
Agreement signed by China and Hong Kong was the first completed FTA agreement
signed by both parties. Its stated purpose is “to strengthen trade and investment
cooperation by liberalizing tariff and non-tariff barriers on substantially all trade,
liberalizing services and promoting trade and investment facilitation.” (CEPA Pre-
Amble)
The CEPA Agreement specifically makes clear that the parties will not apply the
provisions of China’s WTO accession that allow countries to (a) subject China to nonmarket
economy status in the application of anti-dumping; and (b) impose special#p#分页标题#e#
Cooperation
ASEAN and China have also agreed to cooperation focusing on 5 priority sectors namely: agriculture, ICT,
HRD, investment and the Mekong River Basin development, and 11 other activities including the
acceleration of the Singapore-Kunming Railway Project
20 These were the remarks by Wang Jinzhen, spokesman of China Council of Promotion of International
Trade (CCPIT), in Xiamen, Sept.7
Remarks by Wang Jinzhen, spokesman of China Council of Promotion of International Trade (CCPIT), in
Xiamen, Sept.7
19
safeguards on all trade until 2012 and on textiles through 2008. 21 The schedules of the
Agreement provide for the Mainland to eliminate duties on all products of Hong Kong
origin (except prohibited articles) provided that CEPA rules of origin are met. Both sides
also eliminate the application of anti-dumping measures or countervailing measures
although they can apply safeguards. Services are liberalized using a positive list approach
and in accordance with WTP practice extends the preferential treatment to “service
suppliers of other WTO members that are engaged in substantive business operations.”
Financial cooperation is given a lot of attention. The Mainland supports state-owned
banks in relocating their treasure and foreign exchange trading centers to Hong Kong, in
making acquisitions, using Hong Kong financial intermediaries, cooperative financial
regulation, and the listing of insurance companies in Hong Kong. “The liberalization
permits earlier access for Hong Kong service suppliers to the Mainland market, ahead of
China's World Trade Organization (WTO) timetable. In some sectors, like audiovisual
services, transport services and distribution services, the concessions go beyond China's
WTO commitments.” 22There are specific provisions for cooperation in financial
services (banking, securities and insurance) tourism, and trade and investment
facilitation, and for encouraging the mutual recognition of professional qualifications and
exchange of “professional talents”. “The two sides shall resolve any problem arising from
the interpretation or implement of the “CEPA” through “consultation in the spirit of
friendship and cooperation.” A Joint Steering Committee with officials designated by
21 These are contained in Articles 15 and 16 of the “Protocol on the Accession of the People’s Republic of
China to the WT0” and par 242 of the “Report of the Working Party on the Accession of China” China
22Trade and Industry Department of Hong Kong Web Site
http://www.tid.gov.hk/english/cepa/details/note.html#goods
20
#p#分页标题#e# both sides will make decisions by consensus. (Art 19:5) The Agreement signed with
Macao follows a very similar template.
Since Hong Kong did not apply tariffs on Chinese goods, for China this
agreement clearly was not about eliminating tariffs on its exports. It was given greater
security from anti-dumping and countervailing actions. However there are additional
advantages. First, it signaled the special status of Hong Kong, second it gains relief from
the discriminatory treatment in the WTO agreement. Third, it clearly used the agreement
to signal government support for mainland financial institutions in Hong Kong. In
addition it provides services firms in Hong Kong first foreign mover advantages.
Indirectly, it also provides advantages for Hong Kong over Taiwan.
Chile. In 2005 China and Chile concluded an FTA The two countries took less
than a year to negotiate the accord, which immediately eliminates tariffs on 92% of
Chile's exports to China and 50% of the products that China sends to Chile. The pact does
not cover services.23 In 10 years after the start of the tariff concession process, the import
tariff of 97% of the tariff lines of both sides will be zero. Furthermore, the Agreement
provides that the two Parties may accelerate the tariff concession upon consensus through
consultation
New Zealand hopes to become the first developed country to sign an FTA with
China. It has already become the first developed economy to grant it market economy
status. The FTA talks have gone on for several years. The New Zealand government,
23 China-Chile FTA will start the comprehensive tariff concession in the latter half of 2006. At the Chilean
side, the import tariff rates of 74% of the tariff lines will be lowered to zero immediately after the
Agreement takes effect, while at the Chinese side, 63% of the import tariff lines will have zero rate within 2
years; The remaining import tariff lines of both Parties, will be zero rated 5 to 10 years after the Agreement
becomes effective. Each party may keep only 3% of the tariff lines as exceptions with tariff rates
unchanged.
21
which was criticized for signing an agreement with Thailand that failed to include
services, is insistent that the deal should be comprehensive and in addition to covering
covers goods, services and investment, include provisions for rules of origin, trade
remedies, intellectual property and government procurement.
Australia. China is also involved in FTA talks with Australia. Again the
memorandum of understanding that launched the talks granted China market economy
status. The Australian Government has also made clear that it is seeking a comprehensive
agreement that applies to “substantially” all goods, trade in services “as well as other#p#分页标题#e#
non-tariff issues such as the recognition of standards, customs cooperation, protection of
intellectual property rights and regulation of foreign investment.” 24 25 Australia is a
highly competitive producer of agricultural and mineral products. In 2005, it accounted
for 98 percent of all Chinese beef imports, 12 percent of dairy imports, and significant
amounts of cotton and wool. There are significant exports of barely, wheat, hides and
skins and wine and very substantial quantities of iron ore, uranium, non-ferrous metals.
Given Chinese tariffs on agricultural products of 15.3 percent and on Australian
manufactured goods of up to 45 percent, the amount of liberalization for China could be
substantial.26 On Australia’s part, the quid pro quo would be liberalization of tariffs on
24 Australia-China Free Trade Agreement, Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and
Trade, March 2006.
25 The Government also stresses “we will not be rushed. The Australian Government has stressed that any
FTA with China must deliver real gains for Australian businesses across the board. That is, it must be
comprehensive – covering goods, services and investment –and be completed as a single undertaking.”
Ibid.
26 In a model done for the Australian government the authors assume Chinese barriers in
agriculture have the following tariff equivalents: Wool 15 percent, Sugar 25 percent, OilSeeds 13
percent, Cereals 3 percent, Wheat 30 percent, processed rice 10.6 percent. Source: Philip ADAMS
Mingtai FAN Ronglin LI and Zhaoyang ZHENG An Independent Report Prepared for: The
Australia-China FTA Feasibility Study The Centre of Policy Studies Monash University 2 March
2005
22
labor intensive manufactured goods. In the textiles and clothing sector, Australian
average tariffs are 9.1 percent and there are 234 tariff lines with rates of between 16 and
20 percent, and 387 between 6 and 10 percent; in footwear there are 4 lines between 16
and 20 percent and average rate of protection of 5.6 percent. 27
The fact that China is willing to conclude FTAs with these two developed
countries that are highly competitive agricultural producers is very significant since it
indicates a willingness to contemplate major adjustments in agriculture while also
indicating these countries willingness to contemplate free trade in labor-intensive
manufacturing.
Others. China has also launched talks with India and Pakistan. New Delhi does
not quite share the enthusiasm for a conventional FTA although it is willing to talk
about cooperation. But Pakistan and China have signed a framework agreement,
implemented an early harvest and Pakistan has provided China with the requisite#p#分页标题#e#
market economy status. China is also discussing FTAs with many other potential
partners in Latin America (Brazil, Peru), South Africa, the Gulf (GCC), Iceland, Asia
(Korea) and with regional groupings such as APEC and East Asia (Asean plus three),
Implications.
China has numerous goals in signing these agreements. One immediate concern
is to use them to obtain market status recognition and relief from being subject to
special safeguards. -- Ironically China is using these discriminatory agreements as a
way to remove the discrimination to which it has been subjected at the WTO. A
second motive is to secure access to important raw materials— many of the countries
27source: http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/china/fta/feasibility_3.pdf
23
are major suppliers of minerals (Chile-copper, Australia -- iron-ore and uranium, and
GCC—oil). A third is to solidify its relations and influence both inside and beyond
the East Asian region and a fourth, the most basic, is to gain improved market access
for its exports which as labor –intensive manufactured and agricultural goods are
often subject to high tariff protection. Individual agreements are also used to achieve
specific goals. For example, the Hong Kong and Macao agreements help underscore
the privileged relationship between the Mainland and these economies and ensure that
despite their differences measures such as anti-dumping and countervailing duties
could not be used to segment them. In addition these agreements were used to
implement specific joint initiatives and signal clearly that Beijing would permit
increased state owned banks to move some of their operations to Hong Kong.
China is well aware of concerns that it is trying to dominate East Asia and/or
close it to outsiders, and it has gone to great pains to allay such fears. It is particularly
reluctant to appear domineering in its interactions with Asean and it prefers that
ASEAN take the leading role in the bilateral relationship. China also does not want
to be seen as building a fortress Asia. Consider this official statement:
“We should continue to support ASEAN in playing the leading role in East Asia
cooperation. On the other hand, we should give due consideration to the legitimate
interests of the non-East Asian countries in this region, so as to gain their
understanding of and support for East Asia cooperation.”28
In general, China’s approach to FTAs has been very pragmatic. It has shown a
willingness to negotiate with countries individually and in groups (e.g. Asean and
28 “Be Open and Inclusive And Achieve Mutual Benefit and Common Progress” Statement by
Premier Wen Jiabao at The First East Asia Summit Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 14 December#p#分页标题#e#
2005http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/topics/wjbfw/t228275.htm
24
Asean+Korea+Japan) with developed (new Zealand and Australia) and developing
countries and with those that are heavily specialized in agriculture (New Zealand and
Australia), manufactured goods (Asean, South Korea) and services (Hong Kong). It
has been focused on East Asia but also quite willing to deal with countries in Latin
America, South Asia, and Africa. It has sought to signal that its interests are global.
The agreements have not followed a single template. Some have included
goods, services, investment and cooperation (e.g. Hong Kong, Macao), others cover
only goods (e.g. Chile), while some have started with goods liberalization with the
intention to add services and investment later. (e.g. Asean). Several have been
launched with an early harvest in which some liberalization has come into effect as
soon as talks have commenced. The deepest agreements thus far are with Hong Kong
and Macao, although even these do not cover issues that are part and parcel of
agreements that are typically signed by the US (e.g. intellectual property, labor and
environment, government procurement, dispute settlement by panels) or the EU (e.g.
competition policy).
Stumbling blocs? These Chinese initiatives raise several concerns that are
traditionally mentioned in debates about regional trade arrangements. The first is the
concern that these regional arrangements are likely to undermine the multilateral trading
system. This fear is misplaced. If (and this is an important qualification) they do achieve
liberalization in “substantially all trade” FTA agreements that involve China are likely to
hasten global liberalization. China has not insisted on covering services and investment
in its agreements, but its agreements do include liberalization in most merchandise
products Since China is such a competitive supplier of labor intensive manufactures, for
25
most countries, an FTA signed with China is very likely to be trade-creating on the
import side. Indeed, any country that adjusts domestically to Chinese competition is most
likely to require little additional adjustment before it opens up to developing countries as
a whole. (The same would be true of countries opening up in services mode four –the
movement of natural persons if this is included in agreements.) If China is able to sign
FTAs with the Asian Pacific region, this region will be readily positioned to extend this
liberalization to the rest of world.
A similar argument holds for those signing FTAs with the US with respect to
services and investment. The US has insisted on deep agreements that cover services with#p#分页标题#e#
a negative list and investment in addition to trade in goods including agriculture. Any
country that signs with both China and the US could surely extend these benefits to the
rest of the world without major additional dislocation.
The dominoes appear to falling. Each time China concludes an FTA with another
significant trading partner, it puts pressure on others to preserve their access to the
world’s most rapidly growing market. In numerous sectors, China’s MFN tariffs remain
significant and thus FTAs could give producers of those products a significant
competitive advantage. Likewise, each time China succeeds in obtaining preferential
access to another market it adds to the pressure for others who sell in that market to
obtain similar access. Korea and Japan for example, reacted to the agreement between
China and Asean by proposing FTAs of their own with Asean – something they probably
would not have done before.29
29 The Korea International Trade Association (KITA) said the China-ASEAN FTA, which will come into
force Wednesday, is expected to create the world’s largest economic bloc, with bilateral trade amounting to
US$1.2 trillion.
26
The FTA between Korea and ASEAN is still being finalized. It is expected to be
implemented this year and remove duties on 80 per cent of goods traded by 2009. Korea
and ASEAN have also pledged to conclude negotiations on liberalization in services and
investment by the end of this year. Korea also has FTAs with Chile and Singapore and is
seeking similar deals with several Latin American and other countries.
Currently, Japan is reported to be in the process of developing a concerted
response to the pressures it is feeling from the Chinese and US initiatives. It is developing
new policies with respect to agriculture and the movement of labor and planning a host of
additional agreements to preserve its competitive position. 30 It appears that powerful
forces of competitive liberalization are operating effectively.
Fortress Asia? A second, related concern is that East Asia could become a
“fortress” in which barriers are raised or at least not lowered with respect to the rest of
the world. China is, however, clearly willing to negotiate with countries outside the
region. Indeed this is true of the rest of Asia as well. The countries in the Asia Pacific are
global traders and there is no evidence that they are confining their FTAs to the region.
Instead, they are actively scouring the globe to find FTA partners. Singapore has FTAs
with the US and a host of countries outside the region. 31Likewise Thailand, Malaysia and
The pact will cause disadvantages such as high tariffs for South Korean industries such as petrochemicals,#p#分页标题#e#
textiles, shoes and electrical and electronic products, the KITA said.
More than 21 per cent of South Korean exports to China will be subject to tariffs over 10 percentage points
http://www.ukassignment.org/ higher than those for China-bound ASEAN shipments in 2010, when the FTA is fully implemented, the
KITA said. The FTA will impose no duties on more than 90 per cent of the trade between China and
ASEAN members by that time.
30 Japan has reached Agreements for Economic Partnership Arrangements with Philippines, Malaysia and
Thailand. It is negotiating with Korea, Asean, Indonesia, and engaged in collaborative research with Chile,
India, Australia, Switzerland. And in talks in Asean plus 3.
31 Singapore’s government webpage lists eleven FTAs that are in place and fifteen more under negotiation.
http://app.fta.gov.sg/asp/index.asp
27
South Korea are all negotiating with the United States 32and Japan has an FTA with
Mexico.
Hub and spoke? A third concern is that China is going to erect a hub and spoke
system in which China has access to the regional economy duty free, but the other
countries do not have similar access to one another. But in fact, almost all countries in the
region are now negotiating with each other. For example, Asean is negotiating with both
South Korea and Japan and Australia with many countries in the region. So this fear is
also misplaced.
Noodle bowl? The one concern that is legitimate is the fact that these FTAs are
creating a system of overlapping agreements with respect to rules of origin and other
provisions that are unnecessarily cumbersome. By proceeding piecemeal in these
negotiations, there is the danger for China and its other trading partners, that trade could
be enveloped in the proverbial noodle bowl of agreements. Producers could have to meet
different standards and rules of origin when selling to different partners. This is an area
in which the WTO and APEC have both seriously failed. In particular Article XXIV 5(b)
of the GATT only states that the “duties and other regulations of commerce” once the
FTA is concluded shall not be higher or more restrictive than they were before. But it
does little to discipline the crafting of these to meet specific circumstances in a manner
that is protectionist and inefficient. The simplest solution would be a single system of
rules that would be applied by all WTO members in all preferential agreements.
Section III. Qualifications.
32 Thailand's negotiations with the US have confronted problems with respect to light trucks as well as
#p#分页标题#e# agriculture and have become a domestic political issue.
28
I have argued that thus far, China has promoted trade liberalization in both the
WTO and through its FTAs. However, it should be stressed that many of the FTAs have
yet to be completed and thus China’s trade and domestic policies remain very much a
work in progress. In this final section, therefore I make four major qualifications to this
conclusion.
Agreement details. First, the history of free trade agreements is a very mixed one
and in thinking about their implications it is important to pay attention both to their
content and their prospects for implementation. Countries enter into FTAs with very
different motives. Some are genuinely interested in promoting trade liberalization and
deep economic integration and view the agreements as a complement to multilateral
liberalization. For the most part, for example, the United States is using FTAs as part of
such an offensive strategy.33A second group of typically smaller countries is driven by
the desire to improve their competitiveness as a location for production. It is often said
that preferential trade arrangements are “second best” and that multilateral liberalization
is first best. But for individual countries even better than free trade could be the
combination of no barriers at home and preferential access to all foreign markets. This
competitiveness motive seems to explain why Chile and Singapore have pursued these
agreements so avidly. A third group of countries, however, are as yet unwilling to
liberalize fully and are basically driven by defensive considerations to undertake these
agreements. For these countries, there is often a temptation to conclude agreements that
go by the name of FTAs but (a) take a long time to implement; (b) exclude significant
amounts of potential trade in goods and services (c) have highly restrictive rules of
33 To be sure there is resistance in the US particularly from sugar and clothing producers.
29
origin that limit their impacts and (d) fail top include adequate provisions for
enforcement.
China basically seeks to use FTAs fundamentally to secure market access i.e. for
offensive purposes and it is prepared to open its market at home to do this. But its
initiatives are also being driven by political considerations and the desire to reassure
other countries. Unlike the US or the EU, China does not seem to have developed a
demanding comprehensive FTA template that is used with minor changes with all its
FTA partners. Instead China has proceeded more opportunistically, signing agreements
with quite different degrees of depth and coverage. In part this is because China is using#p#分页标题#e#
FTAs as much as an instrument of foreign policy as an instrument of trade policy.34 This
means that where China’s partner is willing to contemplate full liberalization in the
context of a deep integration agreement, the result could be trade creation on a large
scale. Indeed that would appear to be the implication of the types of agreements being
aimed at by the Australian and New Zealand governments. In negotiations with countries
that fall into the defensive category, however, some of the agreements that are actually
concluded could be quite limited and there may be less there than meets the eye.
Chinese implementation. A second key issue relates to the institutional capacity to
ensure that the agreements China signs are actually implemented at home. This holds
with respect both to China’s WTO and FTA commitments. The United States Trade
Representative for example publishes an annual report on Chinese WTO compliance and
it is filled with complaints of compliance failures. The most recent report for example is
34 The greater flexibility in these agreements may reflect domestic decision-making differences. In the case
of the US, agreements must get through the congress.
30
101 pages long. 35 It is particularly concerned with the still incomplete transition from a
state-planned economy. Other concerns include: the lack of enforcement of intellectual
property laws, the continued use of industrial policies in sectors such as auto-parts, steel,
and high-tech, regulatory intervention to support domestic enterprises, export restrictions
on coke, the use of standards to favor domestic high tech producers and sanitary and
phyto-sanitary standards to favor domestic farmers. Nonetheless, the USTR report does
acknowledge that China has made great strides towards coming into compliance and it is
surely the case that trade agreements make it more likely that these issues can be
resolved.
Loss of competitiveness. A third key qualification relates to the continuation of
China’s competitiveness and its impact on Chinese domestic politics. It seems clear that
the competitiveness of its traded goods sector has clearly facilitated China’s adjustment
to its WTO accession and contributed significantly to the character of the trade policy
that I have described in this paper. China is basically eager to erect a legal and political
superstructure to ensure its access to key inputs and markets and it is prepared to expose
its domestic firms and farmers to increased foreign competition in order to do so.
Nonetheless, even with the success it has enjoyed in recent years, domestic tensions have
arisen with respect to the dislocation caused by the spread of the market economy.#p#分页标题#e#
There is a widespread view that the Chinese currency is seriously undervalued
and there are strong external political pressures for a substantial appreciation. 36 The
35 United States Trade Representative, 2005 Report to Congress on China’s WTO Compliance.GPO
Washington DC: 2005.
36 See “Clash of Titans” by C. Fred Bergsten. Newsweek, International Edition April 24 2006. Morris
Goldstein, “Reminbi Controversies” Paper prepared for the Conference on Monetary Institutions and
Economic Development Cato Institute November 3, 2005 and Morris Goldstein and Nicholas R. Lardy,
“What kind of Landing for the Chinese Economy? Policy Briefs in International Economics Number
PB04.7 Institute for International economics November 2004.
31
verdict of overvaluation seems supported by China’s very large current account surplus
of about 5 percent of GDP in 2005 and its significant accumulation of foreign exchange
reserves over the past few years. In March 2006, these amounted to $853.7 billion
surpassing the reserves held by Japan and making Chinese holdings the world’s largest.
There is considerable debate over the appropriate course of action to deal with this issue,
and a discussion here is beyond the scope of this paper. However, for out purposes it
should be recognized that if a significant appreciation of the reminbi was to undermine
Chinese competitiveness, the broad thrust of the policies described here could be
adversely affected. Domestic protectionist pressures would surely increase and China
would be considerably less eager to pursue reciprocal free trade agreements if it was less
confident in its ability to compete. Whatever the costs of China’s exchange rate policies
might have been, therefore, the liberal nature of its recent trade policies should be
counted among its benefits.
Hyper-competivenss. On the other hand, there could be problems abroad, if China
becomes too competitive and protectionism abroad could offset Chinese liberalization at
home. It could also undermine the application of MFN treatment. In both the United
States and the European Union for example, the very large bilateral trade deficits with
China have heightened trade frictions. The surge in Chinese clothing exports in 2005
when the Multi-fiber Agreement expired, led to the use of special safeguards in both
economies. While these were legal, they are certainly discriminatory.
In many developing countries, the highest non-agricultural tariffs are placed on
precisely the labor-intensive products in which China specializes. So while China’s trade
policies are a force for a more liberal trading order, China’s trade performance exerts#p#分页标题#e#
32
countervailing pressures in other countries. Some may rise to the challenge, but others
could become even more reticent to embrace global engagement.
33
Table A1: Distribution of submissions over areas and issues (2003) China WTO
Series WTO body DDA Ind. Joint Total Individual
48 17 65
Ruling Bodies
WT/MIN
(03)/ Ministerial Conference, Doha X 1 4 5
WT/GC/ General Council 1 5 6
TN/C/ Trade Negotiations Committee X 1 1 2
Agriculture
G/AG/ Committee on Agriculture 2 2
TN/AG/ Committee on Agriculture - Special Session X 1 1
G/SPS/ Committee on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures 3 3
Non-Agriculture Market Access (NAMA)
G/C/ Council for Trade in Goods (except trade facilitation) 1 1
TN/MA/ Negotiating Group on Market Access X 1 1
G/MA/ Committee on Market Access 1 1
G/RO/ Committee on Rules of Origin
G/VAL/ Committee on Customs Valuation 1 1
G/LIC/ Committee on Import Licensing 1 1
G/IT/ Committee of Participation on the Expansion of Trade in IT prod.
G/TBT/ Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade 3 3
G/TRIMS/ Committee on Trade-Related Investment Measures 1 1
G/STR/ Working Party on State Trading Enterprises
Rules
TN/RL/ Negotiating Group on Rules X 4 2 6
G/ADP/ Committee on Anti-Dumping Practices
G/ADP/AHG/ Committee on anti-Dumping Practices – WG on Implementation
G/SCM/ Committee on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures 10 10
G/SG/ Committee on Safeguards 2 2
WT/REG/ Committee on Regional Trade Agreements
GATS
S/C/ Council for Trade in Services 2 2
TN/S/ Council for Trade in Services – Special Session X 1 3 4
S/CSC/ Committee on Specific Commitments
S/FIN/ Committee on Trade in Financial Services
S/WPDR/ Working Party on Domestic Regulation
S/WPGR/ Working Party on GATS Rules
TRIPS
IP/ Council for TRIPS 3 3
TN/IP/ Council for TRIPS - Special Session X
Singapore Issues
WT/WGTI/ WG on Relationship between Trade and Investment X 2 2
WT/WGTGP/ WG on Transparency in Government Procurement X
WT/WGTCP/ WG on Interaction between Trade and Competition Policy X 2 2
G/C/ Trade facilitation (dedicated meetings of the General Council) X
Development
34
WT/COMTD/ Committee on Trade and Development
TN/CTD/ Committee on Trade and Development - Special Session X
指导英国ESSAYWT/BOP/ Committee on Balance-of-Payments Restrictions
WT/WGTTT/ Working Group on Trade and Transfer of Technology
WT/TDF/ Working Group on Trade, Debt and Finance#p#分页标题#e#
Trade and environment
WT/CTE/ Committee on Trade and Environment
TN/TE/ Committee on Trade and Environment - Special Sessions X 2 2
TN/DS/ DSU Review 4 4
Source: Nordstrom.
35
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