澳洲留学生作业网指导社会学assignment

 

Rural labor women are the main body of the late medieval England, in the rural population accounts for more than half, they to agricultural labor, employment, GongFuYe operators and a variety of social identities and roles, such as land holders active in social economic life in the country. Their labor not only to maintain the survival of the family is essential, but also help in rural community internal form a mutually beneficial relationship network, for the rural stability and economic development has made outstanding contributions. 
 

In this paper, in the late medieval England rural working women as the research object, in order to be able to objectively and comprehensively understand the research object of this article, first of all, we deal with the differences of its class attribute and its internal analysis. The author based on the famous historian of Hilton in the late medieval England of the farmers on the definition of "working class", which will be the research object of this article defined the class attribute of the working class. About the definition of "working class", become very early historians to discuss a topic, Hilton it defined as farmers, and points out its basic attribute.

That rural residents, he says, farmers and their ownership or possession (possess/on) the mode of production of agriculture. Land farming is the basic unit of the family, but family in a larger unit (village or village), the latter has a certain degree of collective and community interest and the specification. Not all farmers have been engaged in agricultural production, they can use the employment supplement agriculture, participate in the market transaction, or for other farmers to provide technical services, such as carpenters, the tailor or wine. Is critical in terms of definition of farmers, their agricultural production is not only self-sufficient, but also to feed on the class and the organization, such as political control and extract their surplus profit lords, churches and city. Rural women workers with basic properties of the working class: not only do they take part in the agricultural labor, also through the way such as labor and employment GongFuYe make contributions to the family economy; They have as members of the village and community norms, and also want to Lord obligations, and because marriage or real estate transactions and pay fines to the Lord. Rural labor of women's class attribute, made them with the rest of the class have bigger differences between women. 

 

Rural working women, of course, there are some important internal difference, which is closely related to their family situation. Rich peasant family, usually has more than 30 acres of land and other assets, life more comfortable, the class of women not only engaged in agricultural labor, are likely to land operation and GongFuYe; Medium farmers, is the main part of the farmers, generally hold 15 acres of land, is insufficient to provide all needs of the family, and women engaged in agriculture and widely GongFuYe labor; Small classes land owners and workers, is very dependent on wage labor, women not only want to look for ways to make a living and grow their property, still need to go out looking for other employment opportunities. On the other hand, women's economic activities in rural labor are also because of its life cycle and marital status. The unmarried young women have certain independence, often away from home be servants or employees; Married women are often assisted her husband's career, the most can't independent engaged in different industries with her husband; The widow can generally deal with family affairs and participate in economic activities; Single women, there are quite a number of migrant workers, including the majority with who is engaged in the textile, so that the "textile factory" is often equated with single women. 
 

On women's labor, the author can be divided into families of two kinds of labor and social labor. Social labor refers to the women's assistant for a husband of unpaid family economic activity and have a salary of independent economic activity. Traditional societies tend to female unpaid family economic activities also in domestic labor (housework), and as a female "should do", it demean women family productive labor value, kill their great contribution to the social and economic activities. The late medieval peasant family in Britain, women almost do all the housework, it occupies most of their time and energy. But due to the value of housework and today is no consistent view, so this article does not include it in women's economic activities, and the writing emphasis on women's social labor. 

 

The first chapter rural women's agricultural labor and land management 

 

Medieval England country like other agricultural society, women took part in most of the agricultural productive labor. Due to the backward productivity, labor efficiency is low, agricultural production requires a lot of people, just rely on male labor is unable to do all the work, so the women are often involved in the agricultural labor in what housework. If the gender division of labor, exist in the rural labor of the middle ages also applies only to men. Men, regardless of the housework is not responsible for the family garden of farming, the women in addition to do the housework and various auxiliary farm work, also participated in almost all of the activities in the field. The late medieval England rural women of agricultural labor mainly includes two parts: the part is the women in the family or lords proprietary held on the ground of unpaid labor; The other part is the women as workers in the fields of wage labor employers. Although the two kinds of labor will bring family income, but nature is completely different, the former is seen as part of the rural women's duties, the latter is a way of earning extra income, household. 

 

The agricultural labor, no reward 

 

In the countryside, spring the autumn harvest is the busiest season of the year, when the farmer will be widely involved in the agricultural labor. They petunia arable land, sowing, fertilization, harvest grain, banding, such as transportation, threshing, almost the men to do the work they do. Anthony fitzpatrick Herbert's "book of agricultural section about wife duties, said women should be responsible for all kinds of agricultural work. "Should be sown in March flax... they can be made into shoes, mowing, towels, shirts, blouses, and such necessities... winnow various grain, malt, wash and dry, haying, shear corn, and the need to help her husband's dung, when to pull the plough, hay, grains and the like, is a wife's work." It to a certain extent, reflects the author to his wife's role in the agricultural labor expectations, especially women in real life image of the agricultural labor situation. 
 

And, of course, even when not farming, farmer will often fields. In some places, men tend to choose when to leave go out to work, so the main task for the daily management of the field has become women. John thatcher in the 1440 s, for example, a carpenter working for battle Abbey on a regular basis. He also hold a vegetable garden, the garden from the monastery lords and Commons in the seven acres of land. In the 50 s, he rent an additional five acres in the territory. In this way, their own real estate business is must depend on other family members, to combine farming and wage labor. After the black death, the decrease of population makes it easier to land acquisition, some employees also accumulated a 5-10 acres of property, but also for other income they will not give up the opportunity, so the woman as his wife and daughter will assume the bulk of the work on the family property. 

 

In addition to the family holding, rural women to participate in the management of family garden. The middle ages, almost all farmers vegetable garden near the house, garden can provide apple, pear, peas, beans, Onions, carrots, leek and other fruits and vegetables. These fruits and vegetables sowing, fertilizing, weeding, irrigation and harvesting are basically completed by the farmer. Even though they may be limited, but to the reduction of household spending, improve peasant family food nutrition plays an important role. In the garden products, in addition to the home, are likely to flow into the market, thus subsidies household. In some areas, women are also grown in gardens hemp and flax, and they can be directly after receiving a sale or spin weaving after the sale. Thus, women run garden can not only meet the needs of the family, can also make contributions to the family economy. #p#分页标题#e#

 

Medieval rural women could alone or as a husband's assistant, for the Lord servitude. At Walton o region, such as, women are responsible for lords over grass three days each year, cut grain a day of hard labor. Moreover, if some women in its own name in leasing the land, she should be like a male tenant farmers to do labor of duty. In addition, the late middle ages of the English countryside there are higher proportion of widow exist, they often hold size property. If they choose to remarry, so new husband will assume part of the agricultural labor, and all kinds of tenancy obligations attached to the land; If they choose to live widowed, as a female head of the household, they are independently assume all the responsibilities of a family property. Although many widows will hire others or use child labor to ensure the smooth operation of the farming, but the main responsibility or fall on their own. 

In addition, if it is in those who give priority to with animal husbandry areas, or make a living by herding family, women's labor is not land farming, but livestock feed, at the same time, women are also responsible for cleaning and shearing of the work. 

 

Obviously, the late medieval British rural women not only has not been excluded from the agricultural labor, but also plays an extremely important role in agricultural labor. Women by working in the fields, not only increased the labor hands, hold to timely help family farming, to promote the development of agricultural economy, and can solve part of the life needs in the home, meet the needs of the family of vegetables and other non-staple food. Their unpaid by agricultural labor, the family wealth accumulation, and the effective operation of the family the basic economic unit is very important. Compared with rewarding agricultural labor, which, if not more important, also is at least equally important. 

 

Agricultural employment British countryside is developed in the late middle ages, the reasons mainly include the following: one, the lack of farmers' land. In some poor family, only a small amount of land, land income alone cannot survive, in this case, the women would like the men out of their homes to serve agricultural workers. Second, the serfs personal liberation. 14 to 15 th-century British farmers most won freedom through the way of redemption, can flow freely, it's prepared necessary conditions for the plethora of agricultural workers. Third, the influence of the black death. After the black death, the British population crisis, 1348-1351, at least a third of the population, is the biggest impact of economic development, serious lack of labor force, general increase wages. The women employ opportunities increased than before, more women were sucked into the Labour market. In March 1363 to May 1364, Yorkshire, in the eastern region of gear roll charged in the 114 harvest workers, there are 68 women, 60%. This to a certain extent, shows the universality of women's participation in agricultural employment. 

 

Women working range is very wide, including planting, weeding, harvesting hay, Yang valley, threshing, etc. Card, ham region in 1290, for example, there are four women were hired to cut grass. Sometimes, his wife will also act as agricultural workers, with her husband to the rich home husband cut grain, and his wife is in charge of baling, employers according to the grain number of bundles of wages is sent to them. From the 14th century to limit the highest salary in the royal decree of, can be found in all the farm work including women workers. In the production of silver and lead, women also use wood tank washing ore, needed to filter out minerals, sometimes for roads or rocks. In animal husbandry is given priority to, women employment opportunities are often more than the predominantly agricultural areas. In houghton county, for example, shearing, combed wool, wool textile, goat's milk and milk, as well as making butter and cheese and so on work is often regarded as "women's work". 

 

Although women are widely engaged in agricultural employment, but the wages of women has been less than men. In addition to war or disease caused by labor desperately short years, maybe some women to get equal pay with men. After the black death in the UK, for example, men and women workers can earn more commonly the busy farming season. In gloucestershire 1380 min qing Hampton, harvest the crops and strapping grain workers can earn four pence a day, near Irene, do farm work in the same women can earn the amount. But on the whole, the late middle ages in most of the Labour market, women never truly equal pay with men. In Sussex county, 1372, Greene's 10 workers, men wage is 3 pence a day, a woman 2 pence. From early in the 15th century palin "ham coastal farms, and in the 1430 s, weng, and 1482-1483 Essex potter hill real estate survey evidence shows the same result: male workers earn 4 pence per day, harvest female harvest workers can obtain 3 pence every day. 
 

Moreover, women are treated as male labor reserve, unstable labor time. When people lack of women were called to namely, and when male sufficient labor was ignored. Previous cox ham region in 1348, only men were hired to weed control, however, between 1349 and 1350, almost all weed control is accomplished by women. Once the male labor to complement, women and was forced to withdraw from the Labour market. From 1351 to 1357, none of the women were hired to weeding. Also similarly, weng region, in the 1420 s, men were hired to weeding, threshing, collecting hay and harvest. In the 30 s, some women were hired to collect hay and short time harvest. The late 30 s and 40 s, high mortality, forcing employers to hire more women, especially in the autumn. However, in the territory of 1443-44 years accounting books, the only record a women and four men were hired to weed control, until the harvest season there are four other women were hired, they work for 15.5 days, only be pay low wages 2.5 pence a day. So, women are difficult to grasp the when and where they will have the next employment opportunities, and this time is just a few weeks or even days of the year. In 1441, weng, eight women harvest workers a total of 53 days. They mostly work fairly short time, the work is the longest two women, Dennis and Nicholas Andrew's wife, respectively for 15 days and 11 days. 
 

Rural women by participating in agricultural employment, subsidies for the family, not only has important significance to maintain family's survival. At the same time, provided the free labor force for the development of agriculture, for the rise of capitalism and the late medieval England agriculture development plays an inestimable role. 

 

In the middle ages in the agricultural society, land is the most important means of production, is also rely on people's basic life. It generally in the hands of men to inherit, transfer and transfer, however, there are a number of rural women in its youth and widowed stage also have the opportunity to hold land. They or will they hold the land into the marriage, run by her husband. Independent, or as a female head of the household, hold the land, their own name, and is responsible for providing lords for all kinds of rent and labor. Estate record shows that there are a large number of women in the local land market. 

 

1, women land holders 

 

The middle ages, women's access to land ways mainly have the following kinds: first, in the absence of a male heir, inherit the family property. This way to obtain land in size because of the family different, sometimes is a wealthy property, sometimes can only small plots of land to make a living; Second, after her husband's death to the widow's identity to get a share of land from the household assets. Women in this way to get chance to land more secured, is usually more than one third of the real estate of the late husband; Third, their parents, as the form of land at the time of the marriage dowry, usually limited; Fourth, the women by accepting others' assignment or buy their own land. Women in through these channels in the number of opportunities and real estate, there is a great difference. 

 

2，women as heir owns land. 

 

According to the regulation of the medieval English common law, real estate shall practise a system of the eldest son inherited, if without a male heir, was inherited by the female. Visible, although men still dominant inheritance, but women can also receive property, and immediate women inherit priority in collateral men. , according to historian wrigley in medieval England population stable period, 20% of the property after the death of Lord no heir, only 20% of the female heirs, the remaining 60% have at least a male heir. If combining the statistical data and the rules of the common law, can be concluded that: the eldest son inheritance system and common law rules of region, the families of the daughter inherit property about 20%. Bennett of cloth in stoke before the plague area land holding gender pattern study found that: the proportion of land inheritance daughter and son is 1:4. In addition, in addition to direct inheritance, women can also get real estate by means of indirect inheritance. According to the principle of common law of inheritance, if the property has no immediate successor, the integrate collateral inherit to the peace line upward. First of all, died from real estate seeks the heir to the Lord's brothers and their heirs, if failed, are found in from the real estate the sisters and their offspring; If real estate main have neither brothers nor sisters, should be parallel to the back, which can be from real estate Lord father's brothers and sisters and their heirs to find suitable heir. At this time also follow the principle of male is preferred. This way of inheritance of intangible expanded the scope of the heir to increase the likelihood of women inherit property. #p#分页标题#e#

 

Social crisis often interrupt transmission lineage some family men, thereby increasing the chances of women inherit property. Investigation and study of the late medieval England some estate found that, in this age of agricultural crops, because of the lack of food, killing a large number of population, the lack of a male heir, the proportion of women inherit property increases obviously. Similarly, inheritance of opportunity for women in the period of the black death is also increased obviously. Calculated according to jake goody, the population crisis, left a son of the family fell to about 35%, with her daughter's family is only 20%, but no heir to the family as much as 45%, the family property is likely to collateral relatives of male or female. Finally, often is a real estate enter the number of women to rise. Thus, in reducing the population crisis male heir, the more land concentrated into the hands of the women. 

Second, women as a widow holding land. 

 

There are a large number of widows in medieval England countryside, even by conservative estimates, the widow family also want to 1/10 of the total number of British families. Generally speaking, the widow of the late husband 1/3 to 1/2 of the estate salarymen, but around the convention is not consistent. In Staffordshire, for example, the grace of the region, two-thirds of the widow has the right to property, and in some parts of the fort he tired, widows inherited all property. After the black death, the widow because might take over her husband's land and increase the chances of holding land. In 1350-1450 records of 10 real estate, in addition to those for lack of successor into the Lord's property outside the control of, can be delivered within the family property, more than 60% is transferred to women, and the most of them are widows. And widow tend to have more chances of ever attaining real estate than daughter. In Oxfordshire library, ham, daughter seems to have not seen as solving the plague after opening tenancy alternative, but the widow was often can get real estate because of her husband's death. In the base cloth of leicester voss - Harcourt, the widow's right is also very strong, but my daughter is almost entirely excluded from real estate. In addition, with the late middle ages, the lease of the new way of land jointly by both sides of husband and wife, widow of property rights has been further expanded. This way of joint tenant not only provide reliable life safeguard for the widow, and after the death of her husband, a widow nature as the land lessee continue to hold the land, don't have to change the lease contract, also not be successors and lords. Visible, in terms of land holdings, the widow of women has more advantages than other life stage. 

 

3, women get property by other ways. 

 

In the middle ages people thought, dowry glory is a necessary condition of marriage. As parents, usually is going to be a certain amount of dowry for his daughter. Dowries are initially in the form of property, and is usually accompanied by conditions, namely the property can only be by the daughter of inheriting, if no offspring, the real estate under his father or his successor. Land in the form of dowries place to live, not only to ensure that the daughter is usually in the neighboring parents live in a house or apartment, cheap and safer, not easy to be her husband's profligacy, tracking and more easy. But in the late middle ages, the land in the form of dowries to reduce gradually, replaced by money or personal property. In the 15th century, the base cloth of reed greif and leicester voss - ha exam pl, the land becomes increasingly rare in the form of a dowry. Although a few girl can get real estate through the dowry, but this kind of opportunity is neither stable is limited. More rural girl will choose to go off to do the maid or agricultural workers, store up for yourselves a dowry. Some people use their wages to buy small plots of land, thus to make a living, or increase their advantage in the marriage market. In addition, the main property in the family by a male heir to take over the case, other family property usually want to split between widows and no inheritance of the children (those who have already received a dowry daughter usually are not included). The property is usually livestock, cash, but it is also possible that is outside of the family homestead land. A study about the will, according to the girl in those who pass the will arrange family property cases, the opportunity to access to land is 9%. 

To sum up, women usually only to daughter or the widow's identity and access to land, and many women land holders because married or remarried and give up the real estate management, make their holders in the land and the proportion of is low, but they're never been completely out of the land market, there are still a lot of women active in the land market.