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管理学essay范文——棱镜社会理论:发展中国家的官僚制度。本文是一篇留学生管理专业的Essay写作格式参考范文。发展中国家的公共管理涉及公共部门机构的管理和组织。在过去四十年中，许多发展中国家面临的持续挑战是对更多服务、减少贫困和经济增长的日益增长的需求。这些现象使国家有责任重新分配财富和提供社会福利计划。 不发达的基础设施、对稀缺资源的竞争以及功能失调的私营部门促使发展中国家承担起为不断增长的专业人士和中产阶级提供急需就业机会的责任。因此，政府开支急剧增加。在许多发展中国家，政府因提供公共服务效率低下而受到批评。这些公共管理的失败是财政不负责任和一定程度的政治不负责任的结果。这种问责制的缺失源于他们的殖民主义遗产，这反映在中央集权和威权政府上(Aucoin, 1990;Box等人，2001年)。以下是管理学essay范例写作的全部内容，是一篇符合国外大学Essay写作格式要求的范文，供参考。
INTRODUCTION Public management in developing countries is concerned with the management and organization of public sector institutions. A continuing challenge for many developing countries during the last four decades has been an increasing demand for more services, reduction of poverty, and economic growth. These phenomena made the state responsible for redistributing wealth and providing social welfare programs. Underdeveloped infrastructures, competition for scarce resources, and a dysfunctional private sector moved developing countries to take on the responsibilities of providing much needed employment for the growing professional and middle classes. Consequently, government expenditures increased sharply. In many developing countries, governments were criticized for their inefficient and ineffective delivery of public services. These public management failures were the result of fiscal irresponsibility and a certain level of political unaccountability. This lack of accountability stemmed from their legacy of colonialism which was reflected in a centralized and authoritarian government (Aucoin, 1990; Box et al., 2001). The unsatisfactory performance, criticisms, and fiscal mismanagement of the public sector institutions served as the catalyst for public management reform in many developing countries. One such early reform measure was the development of the structural adjustment programs (SAPs) in the 1980s (World Bank, 1991). The main goal of the SAPs program was to cut fiscal deficits, curtail government intervention in the economy, and develop sustainability through private sector initiatives. These goals would be achieved through smaller bureaucracies and improved allocation of public resources. Implemented by developers, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), structural adjustment loan programs provided financial and development assistance to developing countries conditioned upon civil service reform, free market policies, and better management of delivering public services. In numerous developing countries the public sector usually serves as the example of organizational governance and politics (Spicer, 2004). Accordingly, it is the driving force of reform even though its institutions are often the object of public management reform. Many developing countries are faced with constantly changing global socioeconomic and political environments. As a result, it is incumbent on these countries to recognize their growing need for a more dynamic and malleable public sector focused on the continuous improvement of the public management and organization of their public sector institutions. The History of Public Management公共管理的历史 The origins of the field of public management are quite elusive to identify. Lynn (2003) contends that the founding of public management might start with any of the following statements: (1) The contemporary study of public management has its origins in the 1970s: in America, in the curriculums and research of the new public policy schools and efficiency driven managerial reforms originating in Britain and New Zealand (Aucoin, 1990; Pollitt, 1990). (2) What is now termed the field of public management has its roots in the scientific study of the modern administrative state in America beginning in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century (Minogue, et al., 1998; Mosher, 1975; Waldo, 1955). (3) The origins of the field of public management are found in a systematic study and practice of cameralism which began in seventeenth and eighteenth century Germany and Austria (Barker, 1964; Rosenberg, 1958). (4) The field of public management is rooted in bureaucratic government and administrative doctrines in ancient China and in medieval regimes in the Orient (Creel, 1964; Lepawsky, 1949). The term public management refers to a major segment of public administration or public affairs, which encompasses organizational structures, managerial practices, and the institutional values of public managers that implement the will of the sovereign authority (Lynn, 2003). 公共管理领域的起源很难确定。林恩(2003)认为，公共管理的创立可以从以下陈述开始:(1)当代公共管理的研究起源于20世纪70年代:在美国，在课程和研究的新公共政策学校和效率驱动的管理改革起源于英国和新西兰(Aucoin, 1990;波利特,1990)。(2)现在被称为公共管理领域的东西，其根源于19世纪末20世纪初美国开始的现代行政国家的科学研究(米洛等人，1998;莫舍,1975;Waldo, 1955)。(3)公共管理领域的起源发现于17和18世纪开始的德国和奥地利的摄像主义的系统研究和实践(Barker, 1964;罗森伯格,1958)。(4)公共管理领域植根于中国古代和东方中世纪政权的官僚政府和行政学说(克里尔，1964;Lepawsky, 1949)。公共管理一词指的是公共行政或公共事务的一个主要部分，它包括组织结构、管理实践和公共管理者的制度价值，这些管理者执行主权权威的意志(Lynn, 2003)。 Public organizations are organizations that act as agents of the state, i.e. express or carry out the will of the government. States conventionally have three major branches (the legislature, executive, and judiciary) each one an organization. Nested within the executive is the public administration, a hierarchy of sub-organizations: Ministries, special agencies (whether dependent on ministries or answering directly to government leadership), commissions, state-owned enterprises, and so on. This paper concentrates in these sub-organizations of the executive-also called public agencies or bureaucracies. Of course, the way these public agencies sit within the hierarchy of the executive or relate to the other branches of government is important to the way they function. Max Weber’s seminal work entitled Bureaucracy (1946) outlines a framework that considers bureaucracy as a rational and efficient form of organization. Weber’s ideal type bureaucracy is intended as a mental construct that categorizes thoughts and helps capture reality (Fry, 1998). The bureaucracy introduced the concept of hierarchy that carried out the goals of the organization and addressed the challenges of managing bureaucracies (Behn, 1998). In his bureaucratic structure, which applied to public and private organizations, Weber describes the ideal role of its public official or bureaucrat. It outlines in detail the structure and environment of the bureaucracy, as well as an ideal job description and benefits package that would allow the public official to be effective (Shafritz and Hyde 1997; Weber 1946). The characteristics of the bureaucracy consist of administration that is carried out on a continuous basis through a hierarchical structure of authority referred to as a chain of command. The tasks in the bureaucracy are divided among specialized workers in order to improve productivity. At the same time, there are clear lines of authority and responsibility with positions reporting to superiors who are considered to have expert training. The control in the bureaucracy is predicated on impersonality, which means the treatment of people is based on merit principles. Thus, all citizens who are served by the organization are treated equally, according to rules, and records are maintained to assure that rules are followed. Context for Public Sector Reforms in Developing Countries发展中国家公共部门改革的背景 Public sector reforms needs to be understood as a modernization of what was formerly called administrative reform. The public service (ministries, parastatals, and extra ministerial departments) has always been the tool available to African governments for the implementation of developmental goals. Formulation and implementation of public policies and development plans require enhanced capacity (Sharma and Mhalauli, 1993). However, the public service in contemporary Africa is faced with difficult challenges. It operates in a turbulent economic and political environment and has to continue to strengthen its capacity in various directions hence the importance of public sector reforms. The content of the reform can be ideological, socio-psychological, technical and institutional (Hanekom, Rowland, and Bain, 2001). According to Turner and Hulme (1997), administrative reform strategies include restructuring, participation, human resource issues, accountability and public-private mix. Public sector reforms have been undertaken in different countries worldwide for: improving service delivery, enhancing productivity, accommodating political demands, meeting the requirements of economic development, bringing the government closer to the people’s needs and aspirations, and strengthening overall good governance. The range and magnitude of these reforms are outcomes of advancing knowledge, ever growing organization theories, and requirements of good governance and introduction of new public management (Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management (CAPAM), 1996).
公共部门改革需要被理解为以前所谓的行政改革的现代化。公共服务(部委、半国营部门和部外部门)一直是非洲各国政府实现发展目标的工具。制定和执行公共政策和发展计划需要加强能力(Sharma和Mhalauli, 1993年)。然而，当代非洲的公共服务面临着困难的挑战。它在动荡的经济和政治环境中运作，必须继续在各个方面加强其能力，因此公共部门改革十分重要。改革的内容可以是意识形态、社会心理、技术和制度(Hanekom, Rowland和Bain, 2001)。根据Turner和Hulme(1997)，行政改革战略包括重组、参与、人力资源问题、问责制和公私混合。世界各国开展了公共部门改革，目的是:改善服务提供，提高生产力，适应政治需求，满足经济发展的要求，使政府更贴近人民的需要和愿望，以及加强全面的良好治理。这些改革的范围和规模是知识进步的结果，不断增长的组织理论，以及良好治理和引入新的公共管理的要求(英联邦公共行政和管理协会(CAPAM)， 1996年)。 Since the 1980’s, developed and developing countries have been embarking on public sector management reforms with a focus on the rationalization of the role and institutional character of the state. The public sector has been under pressure to adopt private sector orientations in order to enhance its effectiveness and efficiency- value for money, better quality services, increased productivity and faster delivery (Turner and Hulme, 1997). The World Bank and other donors in Africa have been concerned with finding alternative ways of organizing and managing the public services and redefining the role of the State to give more prominence to markets and competitions, and to the private and voluntary sectors (Turner and Hulme, 1997). In the 1990s domestic and external forces started to exert considerable pressure on African governments to liberalize the political space. Consequently, democratic systems were introduced, which embarked upon ambitious programmes of political, institutional and economic reforms. The objectives of those reforms involved changing the role of government, creating an enabling environment for private sector and civil society to flourish and establishing an effective civil service by increasing its competence, efficiency, fairness and quality of services. In good governance prescriptions, one finds public management reforms as a key ECA (2004). New public management is a label used to describe a management culture that emphasizes the centrality of the citizen or customer, as well as accountability for results. The Commonwealth public administration initiative is founded on realization that the public service is under pressure as it is faced with new tasks yet staffed by people geared to achieve old tasks16. Again, public services face ever-growing pressures from tax payers, politicians, and donors demanding to cut government budgets. Citizens have become more active and vocal consumers and are able to insist on lower costs accompanied by higher quality (Hughes, 2003). Therefore, the public service needs serious improvement to enable it rise up to the prevailing challenges. It must be equipped with the necessary resources, infrastructure, services and regulatory architecture necessary for national competitive success. The experiences of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and United Kingdom have been used as models for the rest of the world. Improvements have been recorded in Malta, Malaysia, Mauritius, Singapore, and South Africa. Ayeni (2002) documents public sector reform initiatives in 40 Commonwealth countries 17 of which are in Africa. Key reforms include decentralization, commercialization, privatization, bench-marking, organization and methods, fight against corruption, good governance, accountability, public financial management reform programme, public sector income policy and administration, functional reviews, job evaluation and salary review,, training, information technology, one-stop-shops, code of ethics for public officers, strengthening management capacity, service delivery improvement, ICT, computerization of human resources information, performance management systems, restructuring ministries and provinces (Ayeni, 2003). 英联邦公共行政倡议是基于这样一种认识，即公共服务面临着压力，因为它面临着新的任务，而工作人员又适合于完成旧任务。公共服务再次面临来自纳税人、政治家和捐助者日益增长的压力，要求削减政府预算。公民已经成为更加积极和直言不讳的消费者，能够坚持低成本与高质量并存(Hughes, 2003)。Â因此，公共服务需要认真改进，使其能够应付普遍的挑战。它必须具备国家竞争成功所需的必要资源、基础设施、服务和监管架构。澳大利亚、加拿大、新西兰和英国的经验为世界其他国家提供了借鉴。马耳他、马来西亚、毛里求斯、新加坡和南非的情况有所改善。Ayeni(2002)记录了40个英联邦国家的公共部门改革倡议，其中17个国家在非洲。关键改革包括权力下放、商业化、私有化、基准、组织和方法、打击腐败、良好治理、问责制、公共财政管理改革方案、公共部门收入政策和行政、职能审查、工作评估和薪酬审查、培训、信息技术、一站式服务、公职人员道德规范、加强管理能力、改善服务提供、信息和通信技术、人力资源信息电脑化，绩效管理系统，重组部委和省份(阿耶尼，2003年)。 Dismal Performance of Bureaucratic Systems in Developing Countries发展中国家官僚制度的惨淡表现 There are several factors to explain why reforms fail. Some of them include institutional capability. Programmes and strategies for Africa’s economic recovery and development has not been implemented in full because public sector institutions have been afflicted by problems of corruption, nepotism, inefficiency, poor coordination poor management and institutional capacity, non-existent salary policies and political interference. These weaknesses have stifled the process of socio-economic development across the continent. Multiple accountabilities such as managerial, political and financial and public accountabilities are also viewed as another explanation. Declining public service ethics, social values and morale are other reasons advanced for the failure of public sector reforms in general (ECA, 2004). According to Corkery (1995), one key reason for the failure of public sector reforms is that models derived from developed countries mostly under the sponsorship of IMF and World Bank are largely irrelevant because within the more sophisticated institutional practices and procedures, any changes that have been introduced are supported by institutional safety nets which are not available in Africa. He further argues that private sector management practices imported in some countries have not always transplanted successfully because the parallel reform of monitoring and review procedures called by the introduction of these practices is not taking place simultaneously. The lack of political will for reforms translates into concrete actions why reforms fail. This argument is crucial for understanding problems of administrative reforms in Africa. However, this paper makes one contribution to these problems by highlighting the significance of the hybrid administrative system in explaining the failure of public sector reforms in Africa particularly those aimed at fighting against corruption. CONCLUSION结论 The current administrative system in Africa need to be understood as a mixture of the traditional indigenous and western structures and values which continue to co-exist side by side. At independence, African governments inherited administrative structures which were geared overwhelmingly to the requirements of the ex-colonial powers. For Balogun (1986) most African countries had experienced a dilemma in terms of the administrative culture to adopt. To go back to the good old days of despotism and kingdoms or to come to terms with the western administrative system which co-existed with indigenous structures for close to a century. Political and administrative reforms were undertaken in many African countries due to changes in political objectives and greater volume of government role especially in development. Over four decades or so ago, Riggs (1961) talked of a prismatic society in trying to clarify the impact of the ecology on administration. Although that was years ago, his argument is very relevant to the current dismal failure of administrative reforms in Africa. They are new ‘innovations’ in ‘foreign’ contexts. We are transferring institutions, procedures and systems to contexts which cannot handle the value systems which comes or works well with the new systems. As a result, there is a lot of expenditure in terms of money, personnel, time and effort to make things work. This raises a serious question on the role of law in changing people’s behaviour. From the above discussion, it is becoming clear that there is a huge discrepancy between the intentions of the reforms measures and the outputs as well as outcomes on the ground. The fight against corruption has become tough on the reform agenda of many developing countries. Most of them continue to experience high incidences and allegations of corruption cases when institutions and legal provisions to arrest the epidemic have been created and civic education on corruption has been top on the agenda. The one explanation isolated as an attempt to explain this discrepancy is the lack of fit between the value system that comes with the reform measures through aid and the reality on the ground. The role of learning institutions in providing values supportive of public sector reforms is instrumental. There is need to inculcate the above values and ethical standards in the youth through innovations in the curriculum of primary, secondary and tertiary institutions. 从上述讨论可以清楚地看出，改革措施的意图与实际产出和结果之间存在巨大差异。在许多发展中国家的改革议程上，反腐败已成为一项艰巨的任务。在建立了遏制这一流行病的机构和法律规定，并在议程上优先开展了关于腐败的公民教育之后，其中大多数国家继续面临腐败案件的高发和指控。试图解释这种差异的一个孤立的解释是，通过援助带来的改革措施的价值体系与当地的现实之间缺乏契合。学习机构在提供支持公共部门改革的价值观方面发挥着重要作用。我们有必要透过中小学和高等院校的课程创新，向青少年灌输上述价值观和道德标准。 留学生Essay相关专业范文素材资料，尽在本网，可以随时查阅参考。本站也提供多国留学生课程作业写作指导服务，如有需要可以咨询本平台。 |
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