刚入学的留学生刚开始接触report这个作业形式肯定都不知道怎么写好,国内的老师平时在教育课上也从来没有教过我们report写法。很多同学第一次听到report写作就完全不知道是什么情况。大家有福了这里我们给众多同学做个初步介绍:report就是英文报告,学会计、金融、理工类的学生会经常遇到。那么一般而言report该怎么写呢?
1.结构方面:Report一般由Table of Contents, Executive Summary, Introduction, Body, Conclusion/Recommendation, Reference六部分组成。
2.语言方面:Report中,如果题目是假如你是某公司CEO或其他某个角色,可以使用第一人称;如果没有这样主人翁的假设,还是不能用第1,2人称。请注意这点和Essay的区别。
3.内容方面:
1)Report实践性更重一点,少写理论,多结合实际情况分析。对于某些Case Aanalysis的Report来说,一定要针对导师提供的Case来做分析,而不是自由发挥和滥用无关联的理 论。所有分析都必须针对Case里的内容来进行。 2)数据和图表的使用很重要。如果用到某公司几年内的某一项数据的变化,可以先列数据表格,再用柱状图、馅饼图或曲线图进行直观反映。⒋特别注意问题: 1) Table of Contents,一定要用Word自动生成格式。
2)Executive Summary,一般要出现“The main purpose of this report is to……”这样的标志性语句。一般来说,这部分主要介绍 这篇Report的研究内容、研究对象、研究目的 、研究意义等等一些概括性的东西。
3) Introduction,在一篇Report中,Introduction部分相当于是一个Background,而不是概括Report的内容。请注意与Essay的区别。Report中的Introduction不概括文章内容;不介绍文 章结构(因为目录里已经有结构介绍了);只介绍Background。
4) Body,总原则“少写理论,多结合实际情况分析”,不要空谈。根据要求具体分析,用证据支撑、用事实说话。列出标题、次级标题、有必要时列出下一级标题。每段内容用简洁的语言 提炼出要点关键词,然后进行解释和阐述。
5) Conclusion / Recommendation, 根据论文要求具体把握。
6) Reference: Reference 是导师最看重的,所以请一定特别注意!绝对不能出现编造的情况,一定要真实。国外对这个问题查得很严。一旦查出有作假或抄袭情况,会直接挂科,甚至开除 学籍。一般来说,Reference包含两个部分,一种是in-text reference 也就是在文章里的reference,一种是在文章最后出现的reference, 也就是reference list。一篇论文须要包含 文中的in-textreference和文末的reference list。论文有明确要求几个Reference的,根据要求来把握;没有明确说明个数的,一般按照每千字3-4个来操作。 Reference格式标注办法,一般论文要求中会明确提到。常用的Reference格式有: Harvard referencing system 哈佛文献标记系统 CMS: Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) 芝加哥写作和文献标注系统: APA Style:American Psychological Association. 美国心理学会写作和文献标记办法 AMA:American Medical Association 美国医学会文献标注系统 MLA:现代语言学会写作和文献标注系统 CSE: Council of Science Editors (CSE) 科技编辑理事会文献标记和写作办法)
7) 字体格式:论文有明确要求字体格式、大小等时,根据要求来操作;论文没有明确要求字体大小等时,一般用用times new roman字体;12(小四);1.5倍行距;Word默认页边距;标 题字体可加粗;每段落之间空一行;每段直接写,无需空格;在每页的右下角插入页数。
Report即指学术报告,一听“报告”两字,就知道肯定风格特别正式。每篇Report都必须包括封面,封面内容要包括作者姓名、导师、时间、学科名称等相关信息。完成了封面制作,report的第二步就是写目录(contents),我建议同学们在完成论文以前把此部分空着,因为你还没提笔写正文呢,目录就写好了?目录应该包括大小标题,页码等相关信息。第三部分就是Report的正文了,正文分为三个小部分:开头,内容和结尾。每个小部分的标题和副标题要加粗,正文内容建议使用小四号Times New Roman字体。Report正文一定要严谨,既然是学术报告,则不建议同学们使用第一人称来表述。例如I think,I believe,personal speaking等。专业性词汇要多加以解释,标明资料来源。例如报告中提到“只吃肉不吃蔬菜会导致癌症”,那么相关的解释说明是需要的,可以说从哪个报纸上看到的,或者哪个大学的哪位博士提出的等等。开头部分的一般写法为描述社会现状,对某话题进行研究。然后写明该论文中将对哪部分进行解释、举例或分析等。中间部分要条理清晰,大多数学术报告不存在观点一说(例如你同不同意),所以不需要你有严谨的逻辑,只需要把每个学术名词解释清楚即可。最后就是结尾啦,千万不要在结尾部分加入文中从来没有提到过的东西。因为结尾的目的在于总结,而不是让你凑字数。既然是引用别人的观点,那么论文中一定要加上“reference”和“bibliography”。这两个单词是什么意思呢?自然就是你引用资料的来源。因为预科学习中的网络资源比较多,所以我就给大家列出几个网络来源写法。Reference是需要体现在论文当中的,比如开头,正文或结尾部分。 比如,你从谷歌中搜索出UF官网,从中找到的资料来源(比如UF公立预科入学雅思要求),那你在文中的reference则为:(UF,时间)。因为UF官网并没有此资料的时间,所以只需要写“n.d.”即可。 例1:The IELTS requirement is 5.5 for University First International Foundation Programme (UF, n.d.). 所以(UF n.d.)即为雅思要求的“网络来源”,称为文中的“reference”。 Bibliography 是需要体现在文末的,结尾以后需要另起一页。每个reference对应一个bibliography,所以如果你的reference是UF雅思入学要 求,bibliography需要对应例1中的UF, n.d.,它的写法为大网站(比如UF官网)+小标题+引用的文中的标题(斜体或下划线)+网址+你写此bibliography的时间 例2:Bibliography: UF University First, Apply (n.d.),Entry Requirement for International Foundation Programme(斜体或下划线), Available at http://www.universityfirst.org/en/entry-requirements/ (Accessed 09/04/2015) 2015年4月9日即为你写此bibliography的时间,n.d.的意思是no date,即为此来源的发表日期,因为UF官网上没有此时间所以为n.d.。 所有的reference和bibliography必须是英文网站,不可以用百度,搜狐等内容,歪果人可看不懂中文。 Computer systems computer systems Assignment 1 - Topic: scanners Date: Student name: Student number: Tutor name: Tutorial time: Abstract This report investigates the current state of scanner technology and examines the predicted future advancements of scanners. A brief history of the scanner and its operation is initially outlined. The discussion then focuses on the advantages and limitations of the five main types of scanners in common use today: drum, flatbed, sheet-fed, slide, and hand held scanners. The performance of these scanners is examined in relation to four main criteria: resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and software. It is concluded that further technological advances in these four areas as well as the deployment of new sensor technology will continue to improve the quality of scanned images. It is also suggested that specialised scanners will increasingly be incorporated into other types of technology such as digital cameras. Table of contents Abstract i 1.0 Introduction 1 2.0 How scanners work 2 3.0 Types of scanners 2 3.1 Drum scanners 2 3.2 Flatbed scanners 2 3.3 Sheet-fed scanners 2 3.4 Slide scanners 3 3.5 Hand held scanners 3 4.0 Scanner specifications 3 4.1 Resolution 3 4.2 Bit-depth 4 4.3 Dynamic range 4 4.4 Software 4 5.0 Future developments 5 6.0 Conclusion 5 7.0 Reference list 5 Appendicies 6 Appendix 1 Image Sensor Scanner 8 Appendix 2 Frequently Used References 9 Appendix 2.1 Scanner Tips 10 Appendix 2.2 Scanners, Digital Cameras and Photo CDs 11 Appendix 2.3 The PC Technology Guide 12 1. Introduction The purpose of this report is to survey the current state of scanner technology and to briefly discuss predicted advancements in the field. By examining a range of recently published journal articles, magazine articles and internet sites on the topic of scanners this report describes the main types of scanners in common use today and examines their performance in relation to four criteria: resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and software. The report then considers the effect of further technological advances in these four areas, as well as the deployment of new sensor technology on the future development of scanners. The first scanner, initially referred to as a 'reading machine', was developed in 1960 by Jacob Rabinow, a Russian born engineer. The device could scan printed material and then compare each character to a set of standards in a matrix using, for the first time, the "best match principle" to determine the original message (Blatner, Fleishman and Roth 1998, p.3). This reading machine was to form the basis for the development of current scanning, sorting and processing machines. An early improvement on the reading machine was the drum scanner. These scanners used a type of scanning technology called photomultiplier tubes (PMT). Drum scanners are still used in industry today because of the high quality images they produce. The development of smaller, more economical scanners such as desktop scanners and scanners for domestic use followed the drum scanner as the number of computer users increased and computer technology advanced. Scanners can now capture images from a wide variety of two and three dimensional sources. These images are converted to digitised computer files that can be stored on a hard-drive or floppy disk. With the aid of specific software, these images can then be manipulated and enhanced by the user. It is now possible to deploy electronic acquisition to create an entire layout (including all graphic elements) from the same computer. This means manual stripping is no longer required (Scanners, digital cameras and photo CDs 2000). Scanners are considered an invaluable tool for adding graphics and text to documents and have been readily adopted by both business and domestic users. 2. How scanners work A scanner is a device that uses a light source to electronically convert an image into binary data (0s and 1s). This binary data can then be used to store the scanned image on a computer. A scanner recreates an image by using small electronic components referred to as the scanner's 'eyes' (Scanner tips 2000). The type of 'eyes' used in today's scanners are charge-coupled devices (CCD) and photomultiplier tubes (PMT). These electronic eyes measure the amount of light reflected from individual points on the page and translate it to digital signals that correspond to the brightness of each point (Englander 2000). To create a file on the computer that represents a colour image, the scanner divides the image into a grid with many individual points called pixels or picture elements (Scanner tips 2000). A scanning head, termed a row of 'eyes', reads over the grid and assigns a number to each pixel based on the main colour in that pixel, using green, blue and red. For example an aqua pixel would be saved as a number to represent the proportion of blue, green and red which represents the colour aqua (Scanners, digital cameras and photo CDs 2000). 3. Types of scanners There are five main types of scanners in common use today: drum scanners, flatbed scanners, sheet-fed scanners, slide scanners, and hand held scanners. 3.1 Drum scanners Drum scanners were widely used in the past, however they are much less commonly used today due to advances in scanner technology. As a result of their expense, these machines are primarily used by professionals in industry, where they are considered important due to the high-end quality image they produce and because they use PMT technology which is more sophisticated than charge-coupled devices (CCDs) and contact image sensor's (CISs). Drum scanners are difficult to operate and technicians operate these scanners by placing the item to be scanned on a glass cylinder rotating at high speeds around the sensor (Sullivan 1996). 3.2 Flatbed scanners The most popular scanners for general use are flatbed scanners. This type of scanner is highly versatile because it is able to scan flat objects as well as small three dimensional objects. Flat-bed scanners operate by placing the item to be scanned on a glass window while scanning heads move underneath it. A transparency adapter is used to scan transparent originals such as slides or x-rays, and an automatic document feeder is available for scanning large numbers of documents (Scanner tips 2000). 3.3 Sheet-fed scanners Sheet-fed scanners have grown in popularity in recent years, particularly for small office or domestic use as they are reasonably priced, can scan full-sized documents and are compact, requiring limited desk space (Scanner tips 2000). Most models of sheet-fed scanners have an inbuilt document feeder to overcome the problem of manually feeding one sheet of paper at a time. However the actual process or scanning with a sheet-fed scanner may result in distortion as the image to be scanned moves over the scanning heads (Scanner tips 2000). A further limitation of sheet-fed scanners is that they are unable to scan three dimensional objects. 3.4 Slide scanners This type of scanner is used to scan items such as slides that need careful handling during scanning. Unlike other scanners, the scanning heads in slide scanners do not reflect light from the image, but rather pass light through it. This enables these scanners to produce superior results without distortions caused by reflective light. To be able to scan small and detailed items, these scanners have a large number of eyes on the scanning head which produces a high quality result. Slide scanners tend to be more expensive and less versatile than flatbed and sheet-fed scanners as they are limited to only scanning slides and film. These scanners, however, are well suited to users requiring high quality scans of large numbers of slides (Scanner tips 2000). 3.5 Hand held scanners Hand held scanners are compact, portable scanners which are simply dragged across a page manually to capture an image. These scanners are easy to use and economical to purchase; however, their use is limited to text of up to four inches in diameter that does not require a high resolution. For this reason, hand held scanners are unsuitable for colour images. A further disadvantage of hand held scanners is that the user must have a steady hand when scanning or the resulting image will be distorted (Scanner tips 2000). 4. Scanner specifications The performance of a scanner can be examined in relation to four main criteria: resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and software. 4.1 Resolution Resolution is a measure of how many pixels a scanner can sample in a given image. It is used to describe the amount of detail in an image (Figeiredo, McIllree and Thomas 1996). Higher resolution scanners are generally more expensive and produce superior results as they have a greater capacity to capture detail. Scanners have two types of resolutions: optical resolution and interpolated resolution. Optical resolution, or hardware resolution, is a measure of how many pixels a scanner can actually read. A current model desktop scanner typically has a resolution of 300 x 300 dots per inch (dpi) (Anderson 1999). This means that this scanner has a scanning head with 300 sensors per inch, so it can sample 300 dpi in one direction and 300 dpi in the other direction by stopping the scanning head 300 times per inch in both directions. Some scanners stop the scanning head more frequently as it moves down the page, giving an optical resolution of 300 x 600 dpi; however, scanning more frequently in one direction does not improve the result of the scan. The basic requirement for scanning detailed images and line art from photos or other printed originals is an optical resolution of 600 dpi. When scanning slides and negatives the minimum optical resolution is 1200 dpi. Interpolated resolution measures the number of pixels a scanner is able to predict. A scanner can turn a 300 x 300 dpi scan into a 600 x 600 dpi scan by looking in-between scanned pixels and guessing what that spot would have looked like if it had been scanned. This prediction is then used to insert new pixels in between the actual ones scanned. This technique is less precise than optical resolution; however it assists in improving the enlargement of scanned images. 4.2 Bit depth Bit depth refers to the amount of information that a scanner records for each pixel when converting an image to digital form. Scanners differ in the amount of data they record for each pixel within an image. The simplest kinds of scanners only record data related to black and white details and have a bit depth of 1 (Anderson 1999). The minimum bit depth required for scanning photographs and documents is 24-bits, while slides, negatives or transparencies need a scanner with at least 30-bits. Thus for a scanner to produce a high quality scan with colour, a higher bit depth is required. In general, current scanners have a bit depth of 24, which means that 8 bits of information can be collected for the three primary colours used in scanning; blue, red and green (Anderson 1999). This high resolution allows scanners to produce images close to photographic quality. 4.3 Dynamic range Dynamic range refers to the measurement of the range of tones a scanner can record on a scale of 0.0 to 4.0, with 0.0 being perfect white and 4.0 being perfect black. Colour flat-bed scanners usually have a dynamic range of 2.4. A range of this measurement is unable to provide high quality colour scans. A dynamic range of 2.8 and 3.2 is suited to professional purposes and can be found in high-end scanners. An even higher dynamic range of 3.0 to 3.8 can be provided by drum scanners. 4.4 Software A scanner, like any type of hardware, requires software. Typically the two most common pieces of software provided with scanners include optical character recognition (OCR) and image editing software. Optical character recognition software translates the information recorded in a scan, tiny dots, into a text file which can be edited. Image editing software allows the tones and colours of an image to be manipulated for better printing and display. Image editing also gives filters to apply special effects to scanned images 5. Future developments The quality of scanned images is constantly improving as characteristics such as resolution, bit-depth and dynamic range are enhanced and further developed. More sophisticated image editing and optical character recognition software development is also resulting in superior quality scans. Future advances are expected to result in the incorporation of specialized scanners into other types of technology such as the recently developed digital camera. This device allows the user to take pictures of three-dimensional objects much like a regular camera, except that instead of using film, the objects are scanned by the camera in a similar process to the functioning of a flatbed scanner. The relatively new area of sensor technology in the form of a contact image sensor (CIS) (see Appendix 1) is expected to improve the functionality of scanners and the quality of images as it "replaces the cumbersome optical reduction technique with a single row of sensors" (Grotta and Wiener 1998, p. 1). Developers have already been able to produce a CIS scanner which is thinner, lighter, more energy efficient and cheaper to manufacture than a traditional CCD base device. However, the quality of the scan is not as good as its counterparts. Further development of CIS technology is needed to improve image quality and colour, and to address the problem of a limited 300 or 600 dpi. 6. Conclusion This report has identified five types of scanners currently available. Some are primarily used for professional purposes such as the drum scanner; others are used more broadly in the workplace and home such as flatbed scanners and to a lesser extent sheetfed scanners. Scanners for specialized purposes have also been identified such as slide and handheld scanners. The performance of these scanners is dependent upon their resolution, bit-depth, dynamic range and software. Scanners have improved significantly in recent years in terms of weight, size, price and speed, and the replacement of CCD technology with CIS technology is anticipated to produce further benefits to these areas as well as to scan quality. The impact of these improvements is expected to increase the accessibility of scanner technology to a wider range of users and its suitability for a wider range of purposes. In relation to this, the future of scanner technology seems to point to the convergence of different technologies. Specialized scanners are currently being incorporated into other types of technologies such as digital cameras, printers, and photocopiers. This can be expected to continue with other forms of technology in conjunction with further improvements to image quality, speed, price, size and weight. 7. Reference list Anderson, D. The PC Guide. [http:www.pctechguide.com/18scanners.htm]. Blatner, D., Fleishman, G. Roth, G. (1998) Real world scanning and halftones 2nd edition, Peachpit Press, USA. Englander, I (2000). The Architecture of computer hardware and systems software. John Wiley, USA, p272. Figeiredo, J. McIllree, J. Thomas, N. (1996) Introducing information technology 2nd edition Jacaranda Press, Singapore, p145. Grotta, D. and Weiner, S. What's now ...What's next. [http://www.zdnet.com/pcmag/features/scanners98/intro.html] PC Magazines 20 October 1998. 8/4/00 Prepress, scanners, digital cameras and photoCDs. [http://www.prepress.pps.com/mem/lib/ptr/scanners.html] 1998. 6/4/00 Scansoft scanner tips [http://www.scannercentral.com/scanners/tips/tips1.asp] 2000.6/4/00 Sullivan. M. Types of scanners. [http://hsdesign.com/scanning/types/types.html] 1996. 8/4/00 |