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1. Environmental indexing
环境索引
The idea of environmental indexing of ships is to use environmental criteria to give vessels an index indicating the environmental performance of the ship. The index given to a vessel can be used to differentiate taxes, port dues and charges, but also insurance rates and different financial conditions may be differentiated on the basis of an indexing system.
船舶环境索引的想法是使用环保标准，给船船的环保性能指标。该指数的船只可以用来区分税，港口规费和费用，但保险费率和不同的财务状况可能会有所区别的基础上的索引系统。
Indexing systems have until now only been introduced to a limited extent in some few countries. Some systems are specifically targeting a special type of pollution. The Swedish administration has introduced such a concept focussing on NOx and SOx. Other systems are broader, i.e. the Norwegian concept. It should be noted that the complexity of these systems increases with the areas they cover.
索引系统到现在为止已经被引入到在有限的范围内，在某些少数国家。某些系统中是特别针对一种特殊类型的污染。
For greenhouse gas emissions reductions it is of outmost importance to have an internationally harmonised system. This comprises both a consensus on the indexing criteria and on how to give ship owners the right incentives to improve their environmental performance. A voluntary environmental indexing concept would in many ways be similar to a voluntary agreements programme (see below), while a mandatory system would be similar to imposing emissions or energy efficiency standards (see below). It could therefore be difficult to see what role environmental indexing could play in the longer run. It should be further considered how environmental indexing could play a role in curbing GHG emissions from ships.
因此，它可能会很难看到环境索引可以发挥作用，从长远来看，应进一步考虑如何将环境索引可以发挥的作用，遏制温室气体排放的船舶。
2. A voluntary agreements programme
自愿协议计划
2.1. What is a voluntary agreement?
自愿协议是什么？
Voluntary agreements, often also called “negotiated agreements”, between industry or a company and the government have become a popular policy tool in many countries’ energy-efficiency and climate-change policies since the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997.
行业或公司和政府之间的自愿协议，也经常被称为“谈判达成的协定”，在许多国家的能源效率和气候变化的政策，于1997年通过了“京都议定书”以来已经成为一种流行的政策工具。
Voluntary agreements can range from declarations of intent from a company/industry, to binding contracts with industry and a regulator with counter measures (penalties) specified in case of non-compliance (CICERO, 1999). Such agreements are not voluntary in a strict sense, since in most cases there is an implicit or explicit threat from the regulator to impose other policy instruments if the company/industry is unwilling to negotiate. Also, if the target is not met, the company/industry could meet other, stricter regulations such as emissions fees or the introduction of taxes.
此外，如果目标不符合，能够满足公司/行业其他更严格的法规，如排放费或引进的税收。
Most agreements focus on reductions in relative emissions or energy efficiency. They often contain targets like CO2 emissions or kW per produced unit, with no limits on companies or industry’s total emissions. Some agreements have targets for the implementation of special technologies, fuel switching, operational measures etc., without specifying any emissions or energy-efficiency targets. Few agreements have targets for total emissions.
大多数协议专注于相对减少排放或能源效率。他们往往含有像二氧化碳排放量或生产每单位千瓦的目标，对公司或行业的总排放量没有限制。
2.2. The use of voluntary agreements
自愿协议的使用
Several developed countries have voluntary agreements programmes either as part of or, in some cases, as the mainstay of their national climate-change programme under the UNFCCC. The most comprehensive use of agreements at present can be found in Germany and the Netherlands. In the case of Germany, the federal government entered into an over-arching agreement with the German federation of industry calling for industry to achieve an aggregate reduction in CO2 emissions of 20 percent below the 1990 level by 2005. The agreement is predicated on an understanding that as long as steady progress toward the target is being made, the government will refrain from introducing new taxes or regulations and will resist initiatives for EU-wide co-ordinated taxes. This is one of the few examples of agreements limiting total emissions.
一些发达国家有自愿协议方案的一部分，或在某些情况下，作为其国家气候变化方案“联合国气候变化框架公约”下的中流砥柱。目前使用最全面的协议，可以发现在德国和荷兰。在德国的情况下，联邦政府订立一个涵盖范围广泛的协议，到2005年，与德国工业联合会呼吁行业实现总的二氧化碳排放量减少20％，低于1990年的水平。
In the Netherlands, the agreements between industries and the government focus on improvements in energy efficiency, imposing rather strict targets for this, but with no targets on total emissions. In other countries, such as the US and Canada, voluntary agreements are less comprehensive and are characterised by voluntary actions taken by industry without any formal agreement with the government.
The European Commission, on behalf of the European Union (EU http://www.ukassignment.org/uklunwen/ ), in 1998 finalised an agreement with the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA). In this agreement, the manufacturers are committed to reduce emissions from new passenger cars by 25% between 1995 and 2008. This implies that new passenger cars on average can emit no more than 140 g CO2/km in 2008. The agreement also contains some indicative targets for 2003. There is established a monitoring procedure administered jointly between the Parties, based on data from EU member states independent of the industry. In the case of non-compliance with the 2003 targets, EU will consider to make the targets legally binding. EU has also negotiated similar agreements with car producers in Japan and Korea. All these agreements could be seen as attempts to create some common emission standards for the future car fleet.
欧洲委员会，欧洲联盟（欧盟）的代表，于1998年达成协议，欧洲汽车制造商协会（ACEA）。在此协议，1995年和2008年之间，制造商正在致力于新乘用车排放量减少25％，。
In addition, the European Commission is currently negotiating an agreement with the European Airline Association and the European Aerospace Industry Association on reducing CO2 emissions. The EC is suggesting an annual reduction in fuel consumption or CO2 emissions per passenger-kilometre of 4-5% by 2012, while the industry proposes a reduction of 1.1% [Ends
Environment Daily, Friday 7, January 2000].
2.3. Voluntary agreements in the international shipping industry?
在国际航运业的自愿协议？
One could envisage a program in which ship owners would agree voluntarily to do one or more of the following:
人们可以设想一个方案，其中船东自愿同意做以下中的一个或多个：
• Adopt emission or efficiency standards, which could be differentiated according to ship size and type as well as other fairness and/or attainability criteria. The standards could be phased-in over time or go into effect at a prescribed future point in time. Each ship owner would have discretion to choose how to meet the standard, which could include changes in some operating procedures as well as improvements in technology or upgrades in equipment. The compliance test could be met by third part verification of overall emissions reductions or improved average efficiency.
采用排放或效率标准，这可能是根据不同船舶的大小和类型以及其他的公平性和/或能否实现标准。
• Adopt certain approved practices and/or agree to take certain prescribed actions.
The compliance test would be met by demonstrating that action had been taken, not by proving that as a result of the action emissions had been reduced or efficiency improved.
采用若干批准的做法和/或同意采取若干规定的行动。
• Report emissions or efficiency levels, describe any actions being taken to improve them, and/or report any emission reductions or efficiency improvements being achieved. The compliance test would be met by simply reporting the status of emissions, efficiency levels, actions taken, and/or results of actions taken.
报告排放或效率水平，说明正在采取任何行动加以改进，和/或实现任何减排或提高效率的报告。
The first of these approaches would be the most stringent, the third would be the least. The voluntary agreements programs of Annex I parties under the UNFCCC run the gamut of these alternatives, with the Dutch and German programmes being relatively more demanding and the Canadian and Australian programmes less so.
Compared to national industries, international shipping has weak incentives to enter into voluntary agreements with national (flag state) governments. Shipping faces no immediate threat of national policy instruments to curb GHG emissions, and companies can easily move to other countries if such measures are imposed in their host country. Besides, international shipping is not organised in a way that makes comprehensive voluntary agreements easy tonegotiate for the whole shipping fleet.#p#分页标题#e#
于民族工业相比，国际海运国家（船旗国）政府签订自愿协议的弱激励。
Possibly, the IMO could be a counterpart for agreements on emissions reductions with each shipping company. This would imply a new role for the organisation. The extent to which there would be any signed agreements would depend entirely on each ship owners willingness to sign, as IMO would have no sanctions or threats towards those not signing. Some ship owners might be interested to commit themselves to emission reductions measures to obtain positive good-will from customers and the public at large, although this argument seems of less importance at the moment.
也许，IMO可以与各船公司对应的减排协议。这将意味着该组织的新作用。
Agreements between some ports and ship owners on GHG emission reductions are also an option. Such agreements exist for some other pollutants. For instance in Oslo, the local port authority has agreed with nine ship owners currently entering the port to use low sulphur bunker fuel for their ships when sailing in the Oslo Port area. Similar agreements could, in principle, be established between several ports, for instance in Annex I-countries, on GHG emissions limitations.
类似的协议，原则上可以建立在几个港口之间，例如在附件一国家，对温室气体排放的限制。
It is also possible that some ship owners may wish to join efforts with some shipbuilders to develop more CO2 benign ships.
也有可能，一些船东不妨加入一些造船的努力，开发更多的二氧化碳的良性船。
To summarise, a voluntary agreement is a rather weak policy instrument to achieve substantial emission limitations. Some reductions may be achieved by local agreements etc. or agreements between Annex I-countries/IMO and ship owners, where Annex I-countries co-ordinate their efforts. To avoid free-riders such agreements would most likely have to be mandatory. Thus, they would have to be in the form of technical standards, a policy instrument that will be analysed later in this chapter.
总而言之，实现大量排放限制，自愿协议是一个相当薄弱的政策工具。有些降低，可实现本地协议等，或的附件I-countries/IMO和船东，其中附件一国家协调他们的努力之间的协议。为了避免搭便车该等协议将极有可能是强制性的。因此，他们将不得不以技术标准的形式，在本章后面将要分析这种政策工具。
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